Oliver Cromwell - Wikipedia

Englands militärischer und politischer Führer aus dem 17. Jahrhundert

Königliche Stile von Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector des Commonwealth
.svg " src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Arms_of_the_Protectorate_%281653%E2%80%931659%29.svg/50px-Arms_of_the_Protectorate_%281653%E2%80%931659%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="58" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Arms_of_the_Protectorate_%281653%E2%80%931659%29.svg/75px-Arms_of_the_Protectorate_%281653%E2%80%931659%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Arms_of_the_Protectorate_%281653%E2%80%931659%29.svg/100px-Arms_of_the_Protectorate_%281653%E2%80%931659%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="471" data-file-height="550"/>
	Seine Hoheit
Gesprochener Stil	Ihre Hoheit
Alternativer Stil	Sir

Oliver Cromwell (25. April 1599 - 3. September 1658) war ein englisches Militär und politisch Führer. Von 1653 bis zu seinem Tod diente er als Lord Protector des Commonwealth von England, Schottland und Irland. Gleichzeitig fungierte er als Staatsoberhaupt und Regierungschef der neuen Republik.

Cromwell wurde in den mittleren Adelsstand einer Familie geboren, die von der Schwester von König Heinrich VIII. Minister Thomas Cromwell abstammte. Über die ersten 40 Jahre seines Lebens ist wenig bekannt, da nur vier seiner persönlichen Briefe mit einer Zusammenfassung einer Rede, die er 1628 hielt, überlebt haben. ^[2] Nach einer religiösen Bekehrung in den 1630er Jahren wurde er ein unabhängiger Puritaner. Im Allgemeinen tolerant gegenüber den vielen protestantischen Sekten seiner Zeit. ^[3] Er war ein stark religiöser Mann, ein selbsternannter puritanischer Moses, und er glaubte leidenschaftlich, dass Gott seine Siege leitete. Für Huntingdon wurde er 1628 zum Abgeordneten des Parlaments gewählt, für die Parlamente in den Kursen Short (1640) und Long (1640–1649). Er trat in die englischen Bürgerkriege auf der Seite der "Roundheads" oder Parlamentarier ein, die den Spitznamen "Old Ironsides" tragen. Er bewies seine Fähigkeiten als Kommandant und wurde schnell von der Führung einer einzelnen Kavallerietruppe zu einem der Hauptbefehlshaber der Neuen Modellarmee befördert, die unter General Sir Thomas Fairfax eine wichtige Rolle bei der Niederlage des Royalisten ("Cavalier") spielte. 11. Kräfte.

Cromwell war einer der Unterzeichner des Todesurteils von König Charles I. im Jahr 1649 und er dominierte als Mitglied des Rump-Parlaments (1649–1653) das kurzlebige Commonwealth of England. Er wurde ausgewählt, um den englischen Feldzug in Irland 1649-1650 zu übernehmen. Cromwells Streitkräfte besiegten die Koalition der Konföderierten und Royalisten in Irland, besetzten das Land und beendeten die Irischen Konföderationskriege. In dieser Zeit wurde eine Reihe von Strafgesetzen gegen Katholiken (eine bedeutende Minderheit in England und Schottland, die große Mehrheit in Irland) erlassen, und ein beträchtlicher Teil ihres Landes wurde konfisziert. Cromwell führte auch eine Kampagne gegen die schottische Armee zwischen 1650 und 1651 an.

Am 20. April 1653 entließ er das Rumpfparlament gewaltsam und setzte eine kurzlebige nominierte Versammlung ein, die als Barebones Parlament bekannt ist, bevor er von seinen Kollegen aufgefordert wurde, als Lord Protector of England (zu dem Zeitpunkt auch Wales) zu regieren. , Schottland und Irland vom 16. Dezember 1653. ^[4] Als Herrscher führte er eine aggressive und effektive Außenpolitik durch. Er starb 1658 an natürlichen Ursachen und wurde in der Westminster Abbey bestattet. Die Royalisten kehrten 1660 zusammen mit König Karl II. An die Macht zurück, und sie ließen seine Leiche ausheben, in Ketten aufhängen und köpfen.

Cromwell ist eine der umstrittensten Persönlichkeiten in der Geschichte der britischen Inseln, die von Historikern wie David Sharp, einem Militärdiktator von Winston Churchill, einem Freiheitshelden von John Milton, Thomas Carlyle und Samuel, als regizider Diktator angesehen wird Rawson Gardiner und ein revolutionärer Bourgeois von Leo Trotzki ^[7] Seine Toleranz gegenüber protestantischen Sekten erstreckte sich nicht auf Katholiken; Seine Maßnahmen gegen sie in Irland waren durch einige als genozid oder fast genozid gekennzeichnet, ^[8] und sein Rekord wird in Irland scharf kritisiert. ^[9] Er wurde 2002 als einer der zehn größten Briten aller Zeiten in einer BBC ausgewählt poll. ^[10]

Frühe Jahre [ edit ]

Cromwell wurde am 25. April 1599 in Huntingdon ^[11] von Robert Cromwell und Elizabeth Steward geboren. Der Familienbesitz stammte von Olivers Urgroßvater Morgan ap William, einem Brauer aus Glamorgan, der sich in Putney in London niederließ und Katherine Cromwell (geb. 1482), die Schwester von Thomas Cromwell, dem berühmten Premierminister von Heinrich VIII., Heiratete. Die Familie Cromwell erwarb durch die Übernahme von Klosterbesitz während der Reformation beträchtlichen Wohlstand. Morgan ap William war ein Sohn von William ap Yevan aus Wales. Die Familienlinie setzte sich fort durch Richard Williams (alias Cromwell), (ca. 1500–1544), Henry Williams (alias Cromwell), (ca. 1524–6. Januar 1604), ^[b] dann zu Olivers Vater Robert Williams, alias Cromwell ( (ca. 1560-1617), der wahrscheinlich 1591 mit Elizabeth Steward (ca. 1564 - 1654) verheiratet war. Sie hatten zehn Kinder, aber Oliver, das fünfte Kind, war der einzige Junge, der die Kindheit überlebte. ^[12]

Cromwells väterlicher Großvater Sir Henry Williams war einer der zwei reichsten Grundbesitzer in Huntingdonshire. Cromwells Vater Robert hatte bescheidene Mittel, war aber immer noch Mitglied des Landadels. Als jüngerer Sohn mit vielen Geschwistern erbte Robert nur ein Haus in Huntingdon und wenig Land. Dieses Land hätte ein Einkommen von bis zu 300 £ pro Jahr erzielt, in der Nähe der unteren Einkommensklasse. ^[13] Cromwell selbst sagte 1654: "Ich war von Geburt an ein Gentleman, der weder in beträchtlicher Höhe lebte noch noch lebte im Dunkeln ". ^[14]

Cromwell wurde am 29. April 1599 in der St. John's Church ^[15] getauft und besuchte das Huntingdon-Gymnasium. Danach studierte er am Sidney Sussex College in Cambridge, einem kürzlich gegründeten College mit einem starken puritanischen Ethos. Er ging im Juni 1617 ohne Abschluss seines Studiums aus, unmittelbar nach dem Tod seines Vaters. ^[16] Frühe Biographen behaupten, dass er dann Lincoln's Inn besuchte, aber das Archiv des Inn enthält keine Aufzeichnungen über ihn. Antonia Fraser schließt daraus, dass es wahrscheinlich war, dass er in dieser Zeit in einem der London Inns of Court trainierte. ^[17] Sein Großvater, sein Vater und zwei seiner Onkel hatten Lincoln's Inn besucht, und Cromwell schickte seinen Sohn Richard dorthin 1647. ^[17]

Cromwell kehrte wahrscheinlich nach dem Tod seines Vaters nach Huntingdon zurück. Da seine Mutter verwitwet und seine sieben Schwestern unverheiratet waren, hätte er zu Hause gebraucht, um seiner Familie zu helfen. ^[18]

Ehe und Familie [ edit

Porträt von Cromwells Frau Elizabeth Bourchier, gemalt von Robert Walker

Am 22. August 1620 in St Giles ohne Cripplegate, Fore Street, London, heiratete Cromwell Elizabeth Bourchier (1598–1665). Der Vater von Elizabeth, Sir James Bourchier, war ein Londoner Lederwarenhändler, der über umfangreiche Ländereien in Essex verfügte und enge Beziehungen zu den dortigen Puritaner Adligen hatte. Die Ehe brachte Cromwell in Kontakt mit Oliver St John und mit führenden Mitgliedern der Londoner Handelsgemeinschaft und hinter ihnen den Einfluss der Earls of Warwick und Holland. Ein Platz in diesem einflussreichen Netzwerk würde sich für Cromwells militärische und politische Karriere als entscheidend erweisen. Das Ehepaar hatte neun Kinder: ^[19]

• Robert (1621–1639) starb während des Schulbesuchs.


• Oliver (1622–1644) starb während seiner Zeit als parlamentarischer Offizier an Typhus.


• Bridget (1624– 1662), verheiratet (1) Henry Ireton, (2) Charles Fleetwood


• Richard (1626–1712), der Nachfolger seines Vaters als Lord Protector, ^[20] heiratete Dorothy Maijor.


• Henry (1628–1674), später Lord Deputy of Ireland heiratete Elizabeth Russell (Tochter von Sir Francis Russell). Elizabeth (1629–1658) heiratete John Claypole. James (geb. 1632) starb in der Kindheit. [19659041] Mary (1637–1713), verheiratet mit Thomas Belasyse, 1. Earl Fauconberg


• Frances (1638–1720), verheiratet (1) Robert Rich (1634–1658), Sohn von Robert Rich, 3. Earl of Warwick, (2) Sir John Russell, 3. Baronet

Krise und Erholung [ edit ]

Zu diesem Zeitpunkt gibt es nur wenige Beweise für die Religion von Cromwell. Sein Brief von 1626 an den arminischen Ministerpräsidenten Henry Downhall deutet darauf hin, dass Cromwell noch von radikalem Puritanismus beeinflusst werden musste. ^[21] Es gibt jedoch Hinweise darauf, dass Cromwell in den späten 1620er und frühen 1630er Jahren eine persönliche Krise durchmachte. 1628 wurde er aus der Kreisstadt Huntingdon in Huntingdonshire ins Parlament gewählt. Später in diesem Jahr suchte er eine Behandlung für verschiedene körperliche und seelische Beschwerden, darunter valde melancholicus (Depression) beim in London geborenen Londoner Arzt Théodore de Mayerne. Im Jahr 1629 geriet er in einen Streit zwischen den Adligen von Huntingdon wegen einer neuen Charta für die Stadt, woraufhin er 1630 vor dem Geheimen Rat gerufen wurde. ^[22]

Im Jahr 1631 verkaufte Cromwell die meisten seiner Grundstücke in Huntingdon - wahrscheinlich als Folge des Streits - und zog auf ein Gehöft in der Nähe von St. Ives (damals in Huntingdonshire, jetzt in Cambridgeshire). Dies bedeutete einen bedeutenden Rückschritt in der Gesellschaft im Vergleich zu seiner vorherigen Position und scheint eine erhebliche emotionale und spirituelle Wirkung zu haben. Ein Brief von 1638 überlebt von Cromwell an seine Cousine, die Frau von Oliver St. John, und berichtet über sein spirituelles Erwachen. Der Brief umreißt, wie Cromwell als "Chef der Sünder" in die "Versammlung der Erstgeborenen" gerufen worden war. ^[21] Die Sprache dieses Briefes, die mit biblischen Zitaten durchdrungen ist und die Cromwell als repräsentativ bezeichnet Durch Gottes Gnade vor der Sünde gerettet, setzt sein Glaube fest in den Unabhängigen Glauben, dass die Reformation nicht weit genug gegangen war, dass ein Großteil Englands noch in Sünde lebte und dass der katholische Glaube und seine Praktiken vollständig aus der Kirche entfernt werden mussten. ^[21]

Zusammen mit seinem Bruder Henry hatte Cromwell einen kleinen Bestand an Hühnern und Schafen gehalten und Eier und Wolle verkauft, um sich selbst zu ernähren. Sein Lebensstil ähnelte dem eines alten Bauern. Im Jahr 1636 erbte Cromwell die Kontrolle über verschiedene Besitztümer in Ely von seinem Onkel mütterlicherseits und der Aufgabe seines Onkels als Zehentensammler für die Kathedrale von Ely. Infolgedessen dürfte sein Einkommen auf etwa 300 bis 400 GBP pro Jahr gestiegen sein ^[23] . Bis Ende der 1630er Jahre war Cromwell wieder in den Rang eines anerkannten Adels aufgenommen worden. Er war ein engagierter Puritaner und hatte wichtige Familienverbindungen zu führenden Familien in London und Essex. ^[24]

Parlamentsabgeordneter: 1628–29 und 1640–42 [

Cromwell wurde 1628–1629 Mitglied des Parlaments für Huntingdon im Parlament als Kunde der Familie Montagu im Hinchingbrooke House. Er machte wenig Eindruck: Nach Berichten für das Parlament gibt es nur eine Rede (gegen den arminischen Bischof Richard Neile), die schlecht aufgenommen wurde. ^[25] Nachdem Charles I dieses Parlament aufgelöst hatte, entschied er für die nächsten elf Jahre ohne Parlament. Als Charles sich der schottischen Rebellion gegenübersah, die als Bischofskriege bekannt war, zwang ihn der Geldmangel, 1640 erneut ein Parlament anzurufen. Cromwell wurde als Abgeordneter für Cambridge wieder in dieses Parlament aufgenommen, hielt jedoch nur drei Wochen an und wurde als Short bekannt Parlament. Cromwell verlegte seine Familie 1640 von Ely nach London. ^[26]

Später im selben Jahr wurde ein zweites Parlament einberufen, das als langes Parlament bekannt wurde. Cromwell wurde erneut als Mitglied für Cambridge zurückgegeben. Wie auch beim Parlament von 1628–29 dürfte Cromwell seine Position der Schirmherrschaft anderer verdanken, was möglicherweise erklärt, warum er in der ersten Woche des Parlaments dafür verantwortlich war, einen Antrag auf Freilassung von John Lilburne zu stellen war nach seiner Verhaftung wegen des Imports religiöser Traktate aus den Niederlanden zu einer puritanischen Sache geworden. In den ersten zwei Jahren des Langen Parlaments war Cromwell mit der gottesfürchtigen Gruppe von Aristokraten im Oberhaus und Mitgliedern des Unterhauses verbunden, mit denen er in den 1630er Jahren familiäre und religiöse Beziehungen aufgebaut hatte, wie die Earls of Essex. Warwick und Bedford, Oliver St John und Viscount Saye und Sele. ^[27] Zu diesem Zeitpunkt hatte die Gruppe ein Reformprogramm: Die Exekutive wurde von regulären Parlamenten kontrolliert und die moderate Gewissensfreiheit wurde moderat verlängert. Cromwell scheint an einigen politischen Manövern dieser Gruppe beteiligt gewesen zu sein. Im Mai 1641 zum Beispiel war es Cromwell, der die zweite Lesung des Jahresgesetzgebungsgesetzes vorlegte und später eine Rolle bei der Ausarbeitung des Grund- und Zweiggesetzes zur Abschaffung des Episkopats übernahm. ^[28]

Militärischer Befehlshaber: 1642–46 edit ]

Englischer Bürgerkrieg beginnt [ edit ]

Stich von Oliver Cromwell

Fehler bei der Lösung der Probleme, bevor das Lange Parlament dazu führte bewaffneter Konflikt zwischen Parlament und Karl I. Ende 1642, dem Beginn des englischen Bürgerkriegs. Vor dem Beitritt zu den Streitkräften des Parlaments war Cromwells einzige militärische Erfahrung in den ausgebildeten Bands, der örtlichen Miliz. Er rekrutierte eine Kavallerietruppe in Cambridgeshire, nachdem er eine wertvolle Ladung Silberplatte aus Cambridge-Colleges blockiert hatte, die für den König bestimmt war. Cromwell und seine Truppe ritten daraufhin zu der unschlüssigen Schlacht von Edgehill am 23. Oktober 1642 zu spät an. Die Truppe wurde im Winter 1642 und 1643 als volles Regiment rekrutiert und bildete einen Teil des Ostens Vereinigung unter dem Earl of Manchester. Cromwell sammelte 1643 Erfahrung in einer Reihe erfolgreicher Aktionen in Ostanglien, insbesondere in der Schlacht von Gainsborough am 28. Juli. ^[29] Anschließend wurde er zum Gouverneur der Isle of Ely ^[30] und zum Oberst der Eastern Association ernannt. 19659072] Marston Moor 1644 [ edit ]

Zur Zeit der Schlacht von Marston Moor im Juli 1644 war Cromwell zum Generalleutnant des Pferdes in der Armee von Manchester aufgestiegen. Der Erfolg seiner Kavallerie, die Reihen der Royalistischen Kavallerie zu durchbrechen und ihre Infanterie in Marston Moor von hinten zu attackieren, war ein wesentlicher Faktor für den Sieg des Parlaments. Cromwell kämpfte an der Spitze seiner Truppen in der Schlacht und wurde leicht im Nacken verletzt, trat kurz zurück, um sich während der Schlacht behandeln zu lassen, kehrte jedoch zurück, um den Sieg zu erzwingen. ^[31] Nachdem Cromwells Neffe in Marston Moor getötet wurde, schrieb er eine berühmter Brief an seinen Schwager. Marston Moor sicherte den Parlamentariern den Norden Englands zu, beendete den Royalistischen Widerstand jedoch nicht. ^[32]

Der unschlüssige Ausgang der Zweiten Schlacht von Newbury im Oktober bedeutete, dass der Krieg Ende 1644 endete zeigte immer noch keine Anzeichen für ein Ende. Cromwells Erfahrung in Newbury, wo Manchester die Armee des Königs aus einem Manöver umzingeln ließ, führte zu ernsthaften Auseinandersetzungen mit Manchester, von dem er glaubte, dass es in seiner Kriegsführung weniger als begeistert war. Manchester beschuldigte Cromwell später, Männer der "niedrigen Geburt" als Offiziere in der Armee zu rekrutieren, auf die er antwortete: "Wenn Sie sich für gottesfürchtige ehrliche Männer als Kapitän des Pferdes entscheiden, werden ihnen ehrliche Männer folgen ... Ich hätte lieber eine Ebene ein mit Rostschutz überzogener Kapitän, der weiß, wofür er kämpft und liebt, was er weiß, als das, was Sie als Gentleman bezeichnen, und nichts anderes ist. "^[33] Zu dieser Zeit geriet Cromwell auch mit Generalmajor Lawrence Crawford, einem schottischen Covenanter, in Streit Mitglied der Armee von Manchester, die gegen Cromwells Ermutigung unorthodoxer Unabhängiger und Anabaptisten protestierte. ^[34] Außerdem wurde er vom schottischen Presbyterianer Samuel Rutherford als Antwort auf seinen Brief an das Unterhaus von 1645 wegen Familismus angeklagt. ^[35]

New Model Army ^[35]

19659024] [ edit ]

Teilweise als Reaktion auf den Misserfolg ihres Erfolges in Marston Moor verabschiedete das Parlament Anfang 1645 die Selbstverleugnungsverordnung. Dies zwang die Mitglieder des House of Commons und Die Lords, wie Manchester, wählen zwischen Zivilamt und Militärkommando. Alle - außer Cromwell, dessen Kommission fortlaufend erweitert wurde und im Parlament bleiben durfte - entschieden sich, ihre militärischen Positionen aufzugeben. Die Verordnung ordnete auch an, dass die Armee auf nationaler Basis "umgestaltet" werden sollte, um die alten Bezirksverbände zu ersetzen; Cromwell trug wesentlich zu diesen Militärreformen bei. Im April 1645 trat die Neue Modellarmee schließlich auf, mit Sir Thomas Fairfax im Kommando und Cromwell als Generalleutnant der Kavallerie und Stellvertreter. ^[24]

Schlacht von Naseby 1645 [ edit ]

In der kritischen Schlacht von Naseby im Juni 1645 schlug die New Model Army die Hauptarmee des Königs nieder. Cromwell führte seinen Flügel bei Naseby mit großem Erfolg an, wobei er erneut die Royalistenkavallerie unterwarf. In der Schlacht von Langport am 10. Juli beteiligte sich Cromwell an der Niederlage der letzten großen Royalist-Feldarmee. Naseby und Langport beendeten die Hoffnungen des Königs auf den Sieg, und die darauffolgenden parlamentarischen Kampagnen beinhalteten die Einnahme der verbleibenden befestigten Royalistenpositionen im Westen Englands. Im Oktober 1645 belagerte Cromwell die wohlhabende und beeindruckende katholische Festung Basing House, die später beschuldigt wurde, nach ihrer Kapitulation 100 ihrer 300-Mann-Besatzung der Royalisten getötet zu haben. ^[36] Cromwell nahm auch an erfolgreichen Belagerungen in Bridgwater, Sherborne, teil. Bristol, Devizes und Winchester verbrachten die erste Hälfte des Jahres 1646 damit, den Widerstand in Devon und Cornwall aufzuholen. Karl I. ergab sich am 5. Mai 1646 den Schotten und beendete so den Ersten Englischen Bürgerkrieg. Cromwell und Fairfax nahmen im Juni 1646 die formelle Kapitulation der Royalisten in Oxford an. ^[24]

Cromwells militärischer Stil [ edit

Cromwell hatte keine formelle Ausbildung in Militärtaktik und folgte der allgemeinen seine Kavallerie in drei Reihen zu ordnen und vorwärts zu drängen, sich auf den Aufprall statt auf Feuerkraft zu verlassen. Seine Stärken waren die instinktive Fähigkeit, seine Männer und seine moralische Autorität zu führen und auszubilden. In einem Krieg, der meistens von Amateuren geführt wurde, waren diese Stärken signifikant und dürften zur Disziplin seiner Kavallerie beigetragen haben. ^[37]

Cromwell führte Kavallerieformationen enger Ordnung mit Soldaten ein, die auf Knien reiten Knie; Zu dieser Zeit war dies eine Neuerung in England und ein wesentlicher Faktor für seinen Erfolg. Er hielt seine Truppen nach Scharmützeln, in denen sie Überlegenheit erlangt hatten, nahe beieinander, anstatt sie zu erlauben, Gegner vom Schlachtfeld zu jagen. Dies ermöglichte kurzfristig weitere Engagements, die eine stärkere Intensität und eine schnelle Reaktion auf die Entwicklung der Schlacht ermöglichten. Diese Art des Befehls war sowohl bei Marston Moor als auch bei Naseby ausschlaggebend. ^[38]

Politik: 1647–49 [ edit

Im Februar 1647 litt Cromwell an einer Krankheit, die ihn aus politischen Gründen heraushielt Leben für mehr als einen Monat. Als er sich erholt hatte, waren die Parlamentarier über die Frage des Königs gespalten. Eine Mehrheit in beiden Häusern drängte auf eine Siedlung, die die schottische Armee auszahlen würde, löste einen Großteil der New Model Army auf und setzte Charles I als Gegenleistung für eine presbyterianische Siedlung der Kirche zurück. Cromwell lehnte das schottische Presbyterianismus-Modell ab, das eine autoritäre Hierarchie durch eine andere zu ersetzen drohte. Die New Model Army, radikalisiert durch das Versäumnis des Parlaments, die geschuldeten Löhne zu zahlen, beantragte diese Änderungen, aber das Unterhaus erklärte die Petition für rechtswidrig. Im Mai 1647 wurde Cromwell in das Hauptquartier der Armee in Saffron Walden geschickt, um mit ihnen zu verhandeln, konnte jedoch nicht zustimmen. ^[39]

Im Juni 1647 eroberte eine Truppe Kavallerie unter Cornet George Joyce den König aus der Haft des Parlaments. Als der König anwesend war, wollte Cromwell herausfinden, unter welchen Bedingungen der König bereit wäre, wenn seine Autorität wiederhergestellt würde. Der König schien bereit zu sein, Kompromisse einzugehen, und so setzte Cromwell seinen Schwiegersohn Henry Ireton ein, um Vorschläge für eine Verfassungslösung auszuarbeiten. Die Vorschläge wurden mehrmals mit verschiedenen Änderungen ausgearbeitet, bis die "Heads of Proposals" Cromwell schließlich gefallen und weitere Verhandlungen zuließen würden. ^[40] Sie sollte die Befugnisse der Exekutive überprüfen, regelmäßig gewählte Parlamente einsetzen und Wiederherstellen einer nicht obligatorischen episkopalischen Siedlung. ^[41]

Viele in der Armee, wie die von John Lilburne angeführten Levellers, hielten dies für nicht ausreichend und forderten die volle politische Gleichheit aller Männer In Putney gab es im Herbst 1647 angespannte Debatten zwischen Fairfax, Cromwell und Ireton einerseits und radikalen Levellern wie Colonel Rainsborough andererseits. Die Putney-Debatten lösten sich schließlich auf, ohne eine Lösung zu finden. ^[42][43]

Zweiter Bürgerkrieg [ edit ]

Das Versäumnis, eine politische Vereinbarung mit dem König zu schließen, führte schließlich zum Ausbruch des Zweiten Englischer Bürgerkrieg 1648, als der König mit Waffengewalt die Macht wiedererlangen wollte. Cromwell schlug zunächst einen Aufstand der Royalisten in Südwales vor, angeführt von Rowland Laugharne, der am 25. Mai das Chepstow Castle zurückeroberte und sechs Tage später die Kapitulation von Tenby erzwang. Das Schloss in Carmarthen wurde durch Verbrennen zerstört. Die viel stärkere Burg in Pembroke fiel jedoch erst nach einer Belagerung von acht Wochen. Cromwell befasste sich nachsichtig mit den ehemaligen königlichen Soldaten, weniger mit denen, die zuvor Mitglieder der parlamentarischen Armee gewesen waren, und John Poyer wurde schließlich in London hingerichtet, nachdem die Lose gezogen worden waren. ^[44]

Cromwell marschierte dann nach Norden, um sich mit einer pro-royalistischen schottischen Armee (den Engagers) zu befassen, die in England eingedrungen war. In Preston gewann Cromwell zum ersten Mal allein mit einer Armee von 9.000 Männern einen entscheidenden Sieg gegen eine doppelt so große Armee. ^[45]

Im Laufe des Jahres 1648 begannen Cromwells Briefe und Reden Um stark auf biblische Bilder zu basieren, meditieren viele von ihnen über die Bedeutung bestimmter Passagen. Nach der Schlacht von Preston beispielsweise veranlasste das Studium der Psalmen 17 und 105 dazu, dem Parlament zu sagen, dass "diejenigen, die unerbittlich sind und das Land nicht beunruhigen, schnell aus dem Land zerstört werden können". Ein Brief an Oliver St John im September 1648 forderte ihn auf, Jesaja 8 vorzulesen, in dem das Königreich fällt und nur die Frommen überleben. 1648 erwähnte er viermal in Briefen die Geschichte von Gideons Niederlage der Midianiter bei Ain Harod. ^[46] Diese Briefe deuten darauf hin, dass es sich um Cromwells Glauben handelte und nicht um eine radikale Politik, sondern auch um die Entscheidung des Parlaments, Verhandlungen zu führen mit dem König beim Vertrag von Newport überzeugte ihn das, dass Gott sowohl gegen den König als auch gegen das Parlament als rechtmäßige Behörden gesprochen hatte. Für Cromwell war die Armee jetzt das auserwählte Instrument Gottes. ^[47] Die Episode zeigt Cromwells festen Glauben an den "Providentialismus" - dass Gott aktiv die Angelegenheiten der Welt durch die Handlungen "auserwählter Menschen" (die Gott "bereitgestellt" hatte) leitete "für solche Zwecke). Cromwell glaubte während der Bürgerkriege, dass er einer dieser Menschen war, und er interpretierte Siege als Anzeichen dafür, dass Gott seine Handlungen billigt, und Niederlagen als Zeichen dafür, dass Gott ihn in eine andere Richtung lenkte. ^[48]

King versuchte und hingerichtet [19659024] [ edit ]

Im Dezember 1648 wurde in einer Episode, die als Pride's Purge bekannt wurde, eine Truppe von Soldaten, angeführt von Oberst Thomas Pride, die all diejenigen, die keine Anhänger waren, zwangsweise aus dem Langen Parlament vertrieb Die Grandees in der New Model Army und den Independents. ^[49] So geschwächt, stimmte die verbliebene Abgeordnetenkammer, bekannt als das Rump-Parlament, darin überein, dass Charles wegen Verrats angeklagt werden sollte. Cromwell befand sich noch im Norden Englands und befasste sich mit dem Widerstand der Royalisten, als diese Ereignisse stattfanden, kehrte dann aber nach London zurück. Am Tag nach Prides Reinigung wurde er ein entschlossener Unterstützer derjenigen, die den Prozess und die Hinrichtung des Königs durchsetzen, und glaubte, Charles sei der einzige Weg, die Bürgerkriege zu beenden. ^[24] Cromwell stimmte der Ansprache von Thomas Brook im Unterhaus zu. das rechtfertigte die Gerichtsverhandlung und die Hinrichtung des Königs auf der Grundlage des Nummernbuches, Kapitel 35 und insbesondere des Verses 33 ("Das Land kann nicht von dem Blut gereinigt werden, das darin vergossen wird, sondern durch das Blut dessen, der es vergossen hat." ^[50]

Der Todesurteil gegen Charles wurde schließlich von 59 Mitgliedern des vor Gericht stehenden Gerichts unterzeichnet, darunter Cromwell (der dritte, der es unterschrieb). ^[51] Obwohl dies nicht einmalig war Die Hinrichtung des Königs oder "Regicide" war umstritten, wenn auch aus keinem anderen Grund aufgrund der Lehre vom göttlichen Recht der Könige. ^[52] So war es selbst nach einem Gerichtsverfahren schwierig, gewöhnliche Menschen dazu zu bringen, mitzumachen damit: "Keiner der mit der Überwachung der Hinrichtung beauftragten Offiziere wollte die Bestellung für die eigentliche Enthauptung unterschreiben, also brachten sie Cromwell ihren Streit ... Oliver griff nach einem Stift und kritzelte die Bestellung heraus und reichte den Stift dem zweiten Offizier, Colonel Hacker, der sich bückte, um es zu unterschreiben. Die Hinrichtung konnte jetzt fortgeführt werden. "^[53] Obwohl Fairfax sich auffällig weigerte, die Unterzeichnung vorzunehmen, ^[54] wurde Karl I. am 30. Januar 1649 hingerichtet. ^[24]

Gründung des Commonwealth: 1649 [ edit ]

Nach der Exekution des Königs wurde eine Republik mit dem Namen "Commonwealth of England" ausgerufen. Das "Rump-Parlament" übte sowohl die Exekutive als auch die Legislative aus, wobei ein kleiner Staatsrat auch einige Exekutivfunktionen innehatte. Cromwell blieb Ein Mitglied des "Rump" und wurde zum Mitglied des Rates ernannt. In den ersten Monaten nach der Hinrichtung von Charles I versuchte Cromwell, die ursprünglichen "Royal Independents", die von St. John, Saye und Sele geführt wurden, zu vereinen Cromwell war seit dem Ausbruch des Bürgerkriegs im Jahre 1642 mit dieser Gruppe verbunden und in den 1640er Jahren eng mit ihnen verbunden, jedoch wurde nur St. John überredet, seinen Sitz im Parlament zu behalten. hatte r Nach der Unterzeichnung eines Vertrages mit den Iren "Confederate Catholics" in Irland. Im März wurde Cromwell vom Rumpf ausgewählt, um eine Kampagne gegen sie zu führen. Die Vorbereitungen für eine Invasion Irlands besetzten Cromwell in den folgenden Monaten. In der zweiten Hälfte der 1640er Jahre stieß Cromwell in der "New Model Army" auf politisches Dissens. Die "Leveler" - oder "Agitator" -Bewegung war eine politische Bewegung, die die Volkssouveränität, das erweiterte Wahlrecht, die Gleichheit vor dem Gesetz und die religiöse Toleranz hervorhob. Diese Gefühle drückten sich 1647 im Manifest "Agreement of the People" aus. Cromwell und der Rest der "Grandees" stimmten diesen Ansichten nicht zu, da sie den Menschen zu viel Freiheit gaben; Sie waren der Meinung, dass die Abstimmung nur für die Landbesitzer gelten sollte. In den "Putney Debates" von 1647 diskutierten die beiden Gruppen diese Themen in der Hoffnung, eine neue Verfassung für England zu bilden. Nach den Debatten kam es zu Rebellionen und Meutereien, und 1649 führte die Meuterei von Bishopsgate zur Hinrichtung von Leveler Robert Lockyer durch Erschießungskommando. Im nächsten Monat trat die Banbury-Meuterei mit ähnlichen Ergebnissen auf. Cromwell führte die Beschuldigung an, diese Aufstände zu unterdrücken. Nachdem Cromwell Leveler Meutereien innerhalb der englischen Armee in Andover und Burford im Mai niedergeschlagen hatte, reiste er Ende Juli von Bristol nach Irland ab. ^[55]

Kampagne von Irland: 1649–1650 [

] Cromwell führte eine parlamentarische Invasion in Irland von 1649-50. Die wichtigste Opposition des Parlaments war die militärische Bedrohung durch das Bündnis der irischen Konföderierten Katholiken und der englischen Royalisten (unterzeichnet 1649). Das Bündnis der Konföderierten-Royalisten wurde als die größte Bedrohung des Commonwealth angesehen. Die politische Situation in Irland im Jahr 1649 war jedoch äußerst zerrüttet: Es gab auch getrennte Streitkräfte irischer Katholiken, die gegen das royalistische Bündnis waren, und protestantische royalistische Kräfte, die sich allmählich auf das Parlament zubewegten. Cromwell sagte am 23. März in einer Rede vor dem Heeresrat: "Ich würde eher durch ein kavalierisches Interesse als durch ein schottisches Interesse gestürzt; ich sollte eher durch ein schottisches Interesse als durch ein irisches Interesse gestürzt werden, und ich denke, das ist das Beste." gefährlich ". ^[56]

Cromwells Feindseligkeit gegenüber den Iren war sowohl religiös als auch politisch. Er widersetzte sich leidenschaftlich der katholischen Kirche, die er für den Vorrang der Bibel zugunsten der päpstlichen und klerikalen Autorität leugnete und die er für Verdacht auf Tyrannei und Verfolgung von Protestanten in Kontinentaleuropa verantwortlich machte. ^[57] Cromwells Verbindung des Katholizismus mit Die Verfolgung wurde mit der irischen Rebellion von 1641 vertieft. Diese Rebellion war, obwohl sie unblutig sein sollte, durch Massaker an englischen und schottischen protestantischen Siedlern durch irische ("Gaels") und alte Engländer in Irland sowie Highland Scot-Katholiken in Irland gekennzeichnet. Diese Siedler hatten sich auf Land niedergelassen, das ehemaligen katholischen Eigentümern beschlagnahmt worden war, um Platz für die nicht einheimischen Protestanten zu schaffen. Diese Faktoren trugen zur Brutalität des Cromwell-Feldzuges in Irland bei. ^[58]

Das Parlament hatte vor, Irland seit 1641 wieder zu erobern und hatte bereits 1647 eine Invasionsarmee dorthin geschickt 1649 war viel größer und konnte nach dem Bürgerkrieg in England regelmäßig verstärkt und neu versorgt werden. Sein neunmonatiger Feldzug war kurz und effektiv, obwohl er den Krieg in Irland nicht beendete. Vor seiner Invasion hielten die parlamentarischen Streitkräfte nur Außenposten in Dublin und Derry. Als er Irland verließ, besetzten sie den größten Teil des östlichen und nördlichen Teils des Landes. Nach seiner Landung in Dublin am 15. August 1649 (selbst erst kürzlich vor einem irischen und englischen Angriff der Royalisten in der Schlacht von Rathmines verteidigt), übernahm Cromwell die befestigten Hafenstädte Drogheda und Wexford, um die logistische Versorgung aus England sicherzustellen. Bei der Belagerung von Drogheda im September 1649 töteten Cromwells Truppen nach der Einnahme der Stadt fast 3500 Menschen - etwa 2.700 royalistische Soldaten und alle Männer in der Stadt, die Waffen trugen, darunter einige Zivilisten, Gefangene und römisch-katholische Priester. ^[59] schrieb Cromwell danach dass:

Ich bin überzeugt, dass dies ein rechtschaffenes Urteil Gottes über diese barbarischen Kerle ist, die ihre Hände in so viel unschuldiges Blut getränkt haben, und dass sie dazu neigen wird, den Blutfluss in der Zukunft zu verhindern, was befriedigende Gründe dafür sind Aktionen, die andernfalls nur Reue und Bedauern bewirken können ^[60]

Bei der Belagerung von Wexford im Oktober kam es unter verwirrten Umständen zu einem weiteren Massaker. While Cromwell was apparently trying to negotiate surrender terms, some of his soldiers broke into the town, killed 2,000 Irish troops and up to 1,500 civilians, and burned much of the town.^[61]

After the taking of Drogheda, Cromwell sent a column north to Ulster to secure the north of the country and went on to besiege Waterford, Kilkenny and Clonmel in Ireland's south-east. Kilkenny surrendered on terms, as did many other towns like New Ross and Carlow, but Cromwell failed to take Waterford, and at the siege of Clonmel in May 1650 he lost up to 2,000 men in abortive assaults before the town surrendered.^[62]

One of his major victories in Ireland was diplomatic rather than military. With the help of Roger Boyle, 1st Earl of Orrery, Cromwell persuaded the Protestant Royalist troops in Cork to change sides and fight with the Parliament.^[63] At this point, word reached Cromwell that Charles II (son of Charles I) had landed in Scotland from exile in France and been proclaimed King by the Covenanter regime. Cromwell therefore returned to England from Youghal on 26 May 1650 to counter this threat.^[64]

The Parliamentarian conquest of Ireland dragged on for almost three years after Cromwell's departure. The campaigns under Cromwell's successors Henry Ireton and Edmund Ludlow mostly consisted of long sieges of fortified cities and guerrilla warfare in the countryside. The last Catholic-held town, Galway, surrendered in April 1652 and the last Irish Catholic troops capitulated in April of the following year.^[62]

In the wake of the Commonwealth's conquest of the island of Ireland, the public practice of Roman Catholicism was banned and Catholic priests were killed when captured.^[65] All Catholic-owned land was confiscated under the Act for the Settlement of Ireland of 1652 and given to Scottish and English settlers, Parliament's financial creditors and Parliamentary soldiers.^[66] The remaining Catholic landowners were allocated poorer land in the province of Connacht.^[67]

Debate over Cromwell's effect on Ireland[edit]

The extent of Cromwell's brutality^[68][69] in Ireland has been strongly debated. Some historians argue that Cromwell never accepted that he was responsible for the killing of civilians in Ireland, claiming that he had acted harshly but only against those "in arms".^[70] Other historians, however, cite Cromwell's contemporary reports to London including that of 27 September 1649 in which he lists the slaying of 3,000 military personnel, followed by the phrase "and many inhabitants".^[71] In September 1649, he justified his sacking of Drogheda as revenge for the massacres of Protestant settlers in Ulster in 1641, calling the massacre "the righteous judgement of God on these barbarous wretches, who have imbrued their hands with so much innocent blood".^[59] However, Drogheda had never been held by the rebels in 1641—many of its garrison were in fact English royalists. On the other hand, the worst atrocities committed in Ireland, such as mass evictions, killings and deportation of over 50,000 men, women and children as prisoners of war and indentured servants^[72] to Bermuda and Barbados, were carried out under the command of other generals after Cromwell had left for England.^[73] Some point to his actions on entering Ireland. Cromwell demanded that no supplies were to be seized from the civilian inhabitants and that everything should be fairly purchased; "I do hereby warn....all Officers, Soldiers and others under my command not to do any wrong or violence toward Country People or any persons whatsoever, unless they be actually in arms or office with the enemy.....as they shall answer to the contrary at their utmost peril."^[74]

The massacres at Drogheda and Wexford were in some ways typical of the day, especially in the context of the recently ended Thirty Years War,^[75][76] although there are few comparable incidents during the Civil Wars in England or Scotland, which were fought mainly between Protestant adversaries, albeit of differing denominations. One possible comparison is Cromwell's Siege of Basing House in 1645—the seat of the prominent Catholic the Marquess of Winchester—which resulted in about 100 of the garrison of 400 being killed after being refused quarter. Contemporaries also reported civilian casualties, six Catholic priests and a woman.^[77] However, the scale of the deaths at Basing House was much smaller.^[78] Cromwell himself said of the slaughter at Drogheda in his first letter back to the Council of State: "I believe we put to the sword the whole number of the defendants. I do not think thirty of the whole number escaped with their lives."^[79] Cromwell's orders—"in the heat of the action, I forbade them to spare any that were in arms in the town"—followed a request for surrender at the start of the siege, which was refused. The military protocol of the day was that a town or garrison that rejected the chance to surrender was not entitled to quarter.^[80] The refusal of the garrison at Drogheda to do this, even after the walls had been breached, was to Cromwell justification for the massacre.^[81] Where Cromwell negotiated the surrender of fortified towns, as at Carlow, New Ross, and Clonmel, some historians^[who?] argue that he respected the terms of surrender and protected the lives and property of the townspeople.^[82] At Wexford, Cromwell again began negotiations for surrender. However, the captain of Wexford castle surrendered during the middle of the negotiations, and in the confusion some of his troops began indiscriminate killing and looting.^{[83][84][85][86]}

Although Cromwell's time spent on campaign in Ireland was limited, and although he did not take on executive powers until 1653, he is often the central focus of wider debates about whether, as historians such as Mark Levene and John Morrill suggest, the Commonwealth conducted a deliberate programme of ethnic cleansing in Ireland.^[87] Faced with the prospect of an Irish alliance with Charles II, Cromwell carried out a series of massacres to subdue the Irish. Then, once Cromwell had returned to England, the English Commissary, General Henry Ireton, adopted a deliberate policy of crop burning and starvation. Total excess deaths for the entire period of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms in Ireland was estimated by Sir William Petty, the 17th Century economist, to be 600,000 out of a total Irish population of 1,400,000 in 1641.^[88][89][90] More modern estimates put the figure closer to 200,000 out of a population of 2 million.^[91]

The sieges of Drogheda and Wexford have been prominently mentioned in histories and literature up to the present day. James Joyce, for example, mentioned Drogheda in his novel Ulysses: "What about sanctimonious Cromwell and his ironsides that put the women and children of Drogheda to the sword with the bible text God is love pasted round the mouth of his cannon?" Similarly, Winston Churchill (writing 1957) described the impact of Cromwell on Anglo-Irish relations:

...upon all of these Cromwell's record was a lasting bane. By an uncompleted process of terror, by an iniquitous land settlement, by the virtual proscription of the Catholic religion, by the bloody deeds already described, he cut new gulfs between the nations and the creeds. 'Hell or Connaught' were the terms he thrust upon the native inhabitants, and they for their part, across three hundred years, have used as their keenest expression of hatred 'The Curse of Cromwell on you.' ... Upon all of us there still lies 'the curse of Cromwell'.^[92]

A key surviving statement of Cromwell's own views on the conquest of Ireland is his Declaration of the lord lieutenant of Ireland for the undeceiving of deluded and seduced people of January 1650.^[93] In this he was scathing about Catholicism, saying that "I shall not, where I have the power... suffer the exercise of the Mass."^[94] However, he also declared that: "as for the people, what thoughts they have in the matter of religion in their own breasts I cannot reach; but I shall think it my duty, if they walk honestly and peaceably, not to cause them in the least to suffer for the same."^[94] Private soldiers who surrendered their arms "and shall live peaceably and honestly at their several homes, they shall be permitted so to do".^[95]

In 1965 the Irish minister for lands stated that his policies were necessary to "undo the work of Cromwell"; circa 1997, Taoiseach Bertie Ahern demanded that a portrait of Cromwell be removed from a room in the Foreign Office before he began a meeting with Robin Cook.^[96]

Scottish campaign: 1650–51[edit]

Scots proclaim Charles II as King[edit]

Cromwell left Ireland in May 1650 and several months later invaded Scotland after the Scots had proclaimed Charles I's son Charles II as King. Cromwell was much less hostile to Scottish Presbyterians, some of whom had been his allies in the First English Civil War, than he was to Irish Catholics. He described the Scots as a people "fearing His [God's] name, though deceived".^[97] He made a famous appeal to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland, urging them to see the error of the royal alliance—"I beseech you, in the bowels of Christ, think it possible you may be mistaken."^[98] The Scots' reply was robust: "would you have us to be sceptics in our religion?" This decision to negotiate with Charles II led Cromwell to believe that war was necessary.^[99]

Battle of Dunbar[edit]

His appeal rejected, Cromwell's veteran troops went on to invade Scotland. At first, the campaign went badly, as Cromwell's men were short of supplies and held up at fortifications manned by Scottish troops under David Leslie. Sickness began to spread in the ranks. Cromwell was on the brink of evacuating his army by sea from Dunbar. However, on 3 September 1650, unexpectedly, Cromwell smashed the main Scottish army at the Battle of Dunbar, killing 4,000 Scottish soldiers, taking another 10,000 prisoner, and then capturing the Scottish capital of Edinburgh.^[100] The victory was of such a magnitude that Cromwell called it "A high act of the Lord's Providence to us [and] one of the most signal mercies God hath done for England and His people".^[100]

Battle of Worcester[edit]

The following year, Charles II and his Scottish allies made a desperate attempt to invade England and capture London while Cromwell was engaged in Scotland. Cromwell followed them south and caught them at Worcester on 3 September 1651, and his forces destroyed the last major Scottish Royalist army at the Battle of Worcester. Charles II barely escaped capture and fled to exile in France and the Netherlands, where he remained until 1660.^[101]

To fight the battle, Cromwell organised an envelopment followed by a multi-pronged coordinated attack on Worcester, his forces attacking from three directions with two rivers partitioning them. He switched his reserves from one side of the river Severn to the other and then back again. The editor of the Great Rebellion article of the Encyclopædia Britannica (eleventh edition) notes that Worcester was a battle of manoeuvre compared to the early Civil War Battle of Turnham Green, which the English parliamentary armies were unable to execute at the start of the war, and he suggests that it was a prototype for the Battle of Sedan (1870).^[102]

Conclusion[edit]

In the final stages of the Scottish campaign, Cromwell's men under George Monck sacked Dundee, killing up to 1,000 men and 140 women and children.^[103] Scotland was ruled from England during the Commonwealth and was kept under military occupation, with a line of fortifications sealing off the Highlands which had provided manpower for Royalist armies in Scotland. The northwest Highlands was the scene of another pro-royalist uprising in 1653–55, which was put down with deployment of 6,000 English troops there.^[104] Presbyterianism was allowed to be practised as before, but the Kirk (the Scottish church) did not have the backing of the civil courts to impose its rulings, as it had previously.^[105]

Cromwell's conquest left no significant legacy of bitterness in Scotland. The rule of the Commonwealth and Protectorate was largely peaceful, apart from the Highlands. Moreover, there were no wholesale confiscations of land or property. Three out of every four Justices of the Peace in Commonwealth Scotland were Scots and the country was governed jointly by the English military authorities and a Scottish Council of State.^[106]

Return to England and dissolution of the Rump Parliament: 1651–53[edit]

Cromwell was away on campaign from the middle of 1649 until 1651, and the various factions in Parliament began to fight amongst themselves with the King gone as their "common cause". Cromwell tried to galvanise the Rump into setting dates for new elections, uniting the three kingdoms under one polity, and to put in place a broad-brush, tolerant national church. However, the Rump vacillated in setting election dates, although it put in place a basic liberty of conscience, but it failed to produce an alternative for tithes or to dismantle other aspects of the existing religious settlement. In frustration, Cromwell demanded that the Rump establish a caretaker government in April 1653 of 40 members drawn from the Rump and the army, and then abdicate; but the Rump returned to debating its own bill for a new government.^[107] Cromwell was so angered by this that he cleared the chamber and dissolved the Parliament by force on 20 April 1653, supported by about 40 musketeers. Several accounts exist of this incident; in one, Cromwell is supposed to have said "you are no Parliament, I say you are no Parliament; I will put an end to your sitting".^[108] At least two accounts agree that he snatched up the ceremonial mace, symbol of Parliament's power, and demanded that the "bauble" be taken away.^[109] His troops were commanded by Charles Worsley, later one of his Major Generals and one of his most trusted advisors, to whom he entrusted the mace.^[110]

Establishment of Barebone's Parliament: 1653[edit]

After the dissolution of the Rump, power passed temporarily to a council that debated what form the constitution should take. They took up the suggestion of Major-General Thomas Harrison for a "sanhedrin" of saints. Although Cromwell did not subscribe to Harrison's apocalyptic, Fifth Monarchist beliefs—which saw a sanhedrin as the starting point for Christ's rule on earth—he was attracted by the idea of an assembly made up of men chosen for their religious credentials. In his speech at the opening of the assembly on 4 July 1653, Cromwell thanked God's providence that he believed had brought England to this point and set out their divine mission: "truly God hath called you to this work by, I think, as wonderful providences as ever passed upon the sons of men in so short a time." The Nominated Assembly, sometimes known as the Parliament of Saints, or more commonly and denigratingly called Barebone's Parliament after one of its members, Praise-God Barebone. The assembly was tasked with finding a permanent constitutional and religious settlement (Cromwell was invited to be a member but declined). However, the revelation that a considerably larger segment of the membership than had been believed were the radical Fifth Monarchists led to its members voting to dissolve it on 12 December 1653, out of fear of what the radicals might do if they took control of the Assembly.^[112]

The Protectorate: 1653–58[edit]

Coat of arms of the Protectorate

Banner of Oliver Cromwell

After the dissolution of the Barebones Parliament, John Lambert put forward a new constitution known as the Instrument of Government, closely modelled on the Heads of Proposals. It made Cromwell Lord Protector for life to undertake "the chief magistracy and the administration of government". Cromwell was sworn in as Lord Protector on 16 December 1653, with a ceremony in which he wore plain black clothing, rather than any monarchical regalia.^[113] However, from this point on Cromwell signed his name 'Oliver P', the P being an abbreviation for Protectorwhich was similar to the style of monarchs who used an R to mean Rex or Reginaand it soon became the norm for others to address him as "Your Highness".^[114] As Protector, he had the power to call and dissolve parliaments but was obliged under the Instrument to seek the majority vote of a Council of State. Nevertheless, Cromwell's power was buttressed by his continuing popularity among the army. As the Lord Protector he was paid £100,000 a year.^[115]

Cromwell had two key objectives as Lord Protector. The first was "healing and settling" the nation after the chaos of the civil wars and the regicide, which meant establishing a stable form for the new government to take.^[116] Although Cromwell declared to the first Protectorate Parliament that, "Government by one man and a parliament is fundamental," in practice social priorities took precedence over forms of government. Such forms were, he said, "but ... dross and dung in comparison of Christ".^[117] The social priorities did not, despite the revolutionary nature of the government, include any meaningful attempt to reform the social order. Cromwell declared, "A nobleman, a gentleman, a yeoman; the distinction of these: that is a good interest of the nation, and a great one!",^[118] Small-scale reform such as that carried out on the judicial system were outweighed by attempts to restore order to English politics. Direct taxation was reduced slightly and peace was made with the Dutch, ending the First Anglo-Dutch War.^[119]

England's American colonies in this period consisted of the New England Confederation, the Providence Plantation, the Virginia Colony and the Maryland Colony. Cromwell soon secured the submission of these and largely left them to their own affairs, intervening only to curb his fellow Puritans who were usurping control over the Maryland Colony at the Battle of the Severn, by his confirming the former Catholic proprietorship and edict of tolerance there. Of all the English dominions, Virginia was the most resentful of Cromwell's rule, and Cavalier emigration there mushroomed during the Protectorate.^[120]

Cromwell famously stressed the quest to restore order in his speech to the first Protectorate parliament at its inaugural meeting on 3 September 1654. He declared that "healing and settling" were the "great end of your meeting".^[121] However, the Parliament was quickly dominated by those pushing for more radical, properly republican reforms. After some initial gestures approving appointments previously made by Cromwell, the Parliament began to work on a radical programme of constitutional reform. Rather than opposing Parliament's bill, Cromwell dissolved them on 22 January 1655. The First Protectorate Parliament had a property franchise of £200 per annum in real or personal property value set as the minimum value in which a male adult was to possess before he was eligible to vote for the representatives from the counties or shires in the House of Commons. The House of Commons representatives from the boroughs were elected by the burgesses or those borough residents who had the right to vote in municipal elections, and by the aldermen and councilors of the boroughs.^[122]

Cromwell's signature before becoming Lord Protector in 1653, and afterwards. 'Oliver P', standing for Oliver Protector, similar in style to English monarchs who signed their names as, for example, 'Elizabeth R' standing for Elizabeth Regina.

Broad of Oliver Cromwell, dated 1656; on the obverse the Latin inscription OLIVAR D G RP ANG SCO ET HIB &c PROtranslated as "Oliver, by the Grace of God of the Republic of England, Scotland and Ireland etc. Protector".

Cromwell's second objective was spiritual and moral reform. He aimed to restore liberty of conscience and promote both outward and inward godliness throughout England.^[123] During the early months of the Protectorate, a set of "triers" was established to assess the suitability of future parish ministers, and a related set of "ejectors" was set up to dismiss ministers and schoolmasters who were deemed unsuitable for office. The triers and the ejectors were intended to be at the vanguard of Cromwell's reform of parish worship. This second objective is also the context in which to see the constitutional experiment of the Major Generals that followed the dissolution of the first Protectorate Parliament. After a royalist uprising in March 1655, led by Sir John Penruddock, Cromwell (influenced by Lambert) divided England into military districts ruled by Army Major Generals who answered only to him. The 15 major generals and deputy major generals—called "godly governors"—were central not only to national security, but Cromwell's crusade to reform the nation's morals. The generals not only supervised militia forces and security commissions, but collected taxes and ensured support for the government in the English and Welsh provinces. Commissioners for securing the peace of the commonwealth were appointed to work with them in every county. While a few of these commissioners were career politicians, most were zealous puritans who welcomed the major-generals with open arms and embraced their work with enthusiasm. However, the major-generals lasted less than a year. Many feared they threatened their reform efforts and authority. Their position was further harmed by a tax proposal by Major General John Desborough to provide financial backing for their work, which the second Protectorate parliament—instated in September 1656—voted down for fear of a permanent military state. Ultimately, however, Cromwell's failure to support his men, sacrificing them to his opponents, caused their demise. Their activities between November 1655 and September 1656 had, however, reopened the wounds of the 1640s and deepened antipathies to the regime.^[124]

As Lord Protector, Cromwell was aware of the Jewish community's involvement in the economics of the Netherlands, now England's leading commercial rival. It was this—allied to Cromwell's tolerance of the right to private worship of those who fell outside Puritanism—that led to his encouraging Jews to return to England in 1657, over 350 years after their banishment by Edward I, in the hope that they would help speed up the recovery of the country after the disruption of the Civil Wars.^[125] There was a longer-term motive for Cromwell's decision to allow the Jews to return to England, and that was the hope that they would convert to Christianity and therefore hasten the Second Coming of Jesus Christ, ultimately based on Matthew 23:37–39 and Romans 11. At the Whitehall conference of December 1655 he quoted from St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans 10:12–15 on the need to send Christian preachers to the Jews. William Prynne the Presbyterian, in contrast to Cromwell the Congregationalist, was strongly opposed to the latter's pro-Jewish policy.^{[126][127][128]}

On 23 March 1657 the Protectorate signed the Treaty of Paris with Louis XIV against Spain. Cromwell pledged to supply France with 6,000 troops and war ships. In accordance with the terms of the treaty, Mardyck and Dunkirk – a base for privateers and commerce raiders attacking English merchant shipping – were ceded to England.^[129]

In 1657, Cromwell was offered the crown by Parliament as part of a revised constitutional settlement, presenting him with a dilemma since he had been "instrumental" in abolishing the monarchy. Cromwell agonised for six weeks over the offer. He was attracted by the prospect of stability it held out, but in a speech on 13 April 1657 he made clear that God's providence had spoken against the office of King: "I would not seek to set up that which Providence hath destroyed and laid in the dust, and I would not build Jericho again".^[130] The reference to Jericho harks back to a previous occasion on which Cromwell had wrestled with his conscience when the news reached England of the defeat of an expedition against the Spanish-held island of Hispaniola in the West Indies in 1655—comparing himself to Achan, who had brought the Israelites defeat after bringing plunder back to camp after the capture of Jericho.^[131]
Instead, Cromwell was ceremonially re-installed as Lord Protector on 26 June 1657 at Westminster Hall, sitting upon King Edward's Chair, which was moved specially from Westminster Abbey for the occasion. The event in part echoed a coronation, using many of its symbols and regalia, such as a purple ermine-lined robe, a sword of justice and a sceptre (but not a crown or an orb). But, most notably, the office of Lord Protector was still not to become hereditary, though Cromwell was now able to nominate his own successor. Cromwell's new rights and powers were laid out in the Humble Petition and Advice, a legislative instrument which replaced the Instrument of Government. Despite failing to restore the Crown, this new constitution did set up many of the vestiges of the ancient constitution including a house of life peers (in place of the House of Lords). In the Humble Petition it was called the Other House as the Commons could not agree on a suitable name. Furthermore, Oliver Cromwell increasingly took on more of the trappings of monarchy. In particular, he created three peerages after the acceptance of the Humble Petition and Advice: Charles Howard was made Viscount Morpeth and Baron Gisland in July 1657 and Edmund Dunch was created Baron Burnell of East Wittenham in April 1658.^[132]

Death and posthumous execution[edit]

Cromwell is thought to have suffered from malaria and from "stone", a common term for urinary and kidney infections. In 1658, he was struck by a sudden bout of malarial fever, followed directly by illness symptomatic of a urinary or kidney complaint. The Venetian ambassador wrote regular dispatches to the Doge of Venice in which he included details of Cromwell's final illness, and he was suspicious of the rapidity of his death.^[133] The decline may have been hastened by the death of his daughter Elizabeth Claypole in August. He died at age 59 at Whitehall on Friday 3 September 1658, the anniversary of his great victories at Dunbar and Worcester.^[134] The most likely cause was septicaemia following his urinary infection. He was buried with great ceremony, with an elaborate funeral at Westminster Abbey based on that of James I, his daughter Elizabeth also being buried there.^[136]

He was succeeded as Lord Protector by his son Richard. Richard had no power base in Parliament or the Army and was forced to resign in May 1659, ending the Protectorate. There was no clear leadership from the various factions that jostled for power during the reinstated Commonwealth, so George Monck was able to march on London at the head of New Model Army regiments and restore the Long Parliament. Under Monck's watchful eye, the necessary constitutional adjustments were made so that Charles II could be invited back from exile in 1660 to be King under a restored monarchy.^[137]

The execution of the bodies of Cromwell, Bradshaw, and Ireton, from a contemporaneous print

Cromwell's body was exhumed from Westminster Abbey on 30 January 1661, the 12th anniversary of the execution of Charles I, and was subjected to a posthumous execution, as were the remains of Robert Blake, John Bradshaw, and Henry Ireton. (The body of Cromwell's daughter was allowed to remain buried in the Abbey.) His body was hanged in chains at Tyburn, London and then thrown into a pit. His head was cut off and displayed on a pole outside Westminster Hall until 1685. Afterwards, it was owned by various people, including a documented sale in 1814 to Josiah Henry Wilkinson,^[138][139] and it was publicly exhibited several times before being buried beneath the floor of the antechapel at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge in 1960.^[136][140] The exact position was not publicly disclosed, but a plaque marks the approximate location.^[141]

Many people began to question whether the body mutilated at Tyburn and the head seen on Westminster Hall were Cromwell's.^[142] These doubts arose because it was assumed that Cromwell's body was reburied in several places between his death in September 1658 and the exhumation of January 1661, in order to protect it from vengeful royalists. The stories suggest that his bodily remains are buried in London, Cambridgeshire, Northamptonshire, or Yorkshire.^[143]

The Cromwell vault was later used as a burial place for Charles II's illegitimate descendants.^[144] In Westminster Abbey, the site of Cromwell's burial was marked during the 19th century by a floor stone in what is now the RAF Chapel reading: "The burial place of Oliver Cromwell 1658–1661".^[145]

Political reputation[edit]

A contemporaneous satirical view of Cromwell as a usurper of monarchical power

During his lifetime, some tracts painted Cromwell as a hypocrite motivated by power. For example, The Machiavilian Cromwell and The Juglers Discovered are parts of an attack on Cromwell by the Levellers after 1647, and both present him as a Machiavellian figure.^[146] John Spittlehouse presented a more positive assessment in A Warning Piece Dischargedcomparing him to Moses rescuing the English by taking them safely through the Red Sea of the civil wars.^[147] Poet John Milton called Cromwell "our chief of men" in his Sonnet XVI.^[148]

Several biographies were published soon after Cromwell's death. An example is The Perfect Politicianwhich describes how Cromwell "loved men more than books" and provides a nuanced assessment of him as an energetic campaigner for liberty of conscience who is brought down by pride and ambition.^[149] An equally nuanced but less positive assessment was published in 1667 by Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon in his History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in England. Clarendon famously declares that Cromwell "will be looked upon by posterity as a brave bad man".^[150] He argues that Cromwell's rise to power had been helped by his great spirit and energy, but also by his ruthlessness. Clarendon was not one of Cromwell's confidantes, and his account was written after the Restoration of the monarchy.^[150]

During the early 18th century, Cromwell's image began to be adopted and reshaped by the Whigs as part of a wider project to give their political objectives historical legitimacy. John Toland rewrote Edmund Ludlow's Memoirs in order to remove the Puritan elements and replace them with a Whiggish brand of republicanism, and it presents the Cromwellian Protectorate as a military tyranny. Through Ludlow, Toland portrayed Cromwell as a despot who crushed the beginnings of democratic rule in the 1640s.^[151]

I hope to render the English name as great and formidable as ever the Roman was.^[152]

— Cromwell

During the early 19th century, Cromwell began to be portrayed in a positive light by Romantic artists and poets. Thomas Carlyle continued this reassessment in the 1840s, publishing an annotated collection of his letters and speeches, and describing English Puritanism as "the last of all our Heroisms" while taking a negative view of his own era.^[153] By the late 19th century, Carlyle's portrayal of Cromwell had become assimilated into Whig and Liberal historiography, stressing the centrality of puritan morality and earnestness. Oxford civil war historian Samuel Rawson Gardiner concluded that "the man—it is ever so with the noblest—was greater than his work".^[154] Gardiner stressed Cromwell's dynamic and mercurial character, and his role in dismantling absolute monarchy, while underestimating Cromwell's religious conviction.^[155] Cromwell's foreign policy also provided an attractive forerunner of Victorian imperial expansion, with Gardiner stressing his "constancy of effort to make England great by land and sea".^[156]

During the first half of the 20th century, Cromwell's reputation was often influenced by the rise of fascism in Nazi Germany and in Italy. Harvard historian Wilbur Cortez Abbott, for example, devoted much of his career to compiling and editing a multi-volume collection of Cromwell's letters and speeches, published between 1937 and 1947. Abbott argues that Cromwell was a proto-fascist. However, subsequent historians such as John Morrill have criticised both Abbott's interpretation of Cromwell and his editorial approach.^[157]

Late 20th-century historians re-examined the nature of Cromwell's faith and of his authoritarian regime. Austin Woolrych explored the issue of "dictatorship" in depth, arguing that Cromwell was subject to two conflicting forces: his obligation to the army and his desire to achieve a lasting settlement by winning back the confidence of the nation as a whole. He argued that the dictatorial elements of Cromwell's rule stemmed less from its military origin or the participation of army officers in civil government than from his constant commitment to the interest of the people of God and his conviction that suppressing vice and encouraging virtue constituted the chief end of government.^[158] Historians such as John Morrill, Blair Worden, and J. C. Davis have developed this theme, revealing the extent to which Cromwell's writing and speeches are suffused with biblical references, and arguing that his radical actions were driven by his zeal for godly reformation.^[159]

Monuments and posthumous honours[edit]

In 1776, one of the first ships commissioned to serve in the American Continental Navy during the American Revolutionary War was named Oliver Cromwell.^[160]

19th-century engineer Sir Richard Tangye was a noted Cromwell enthusiast and collector of Cromwell manuscripts and memorabilia.^[161] His collection included many rare manuscripts and printed books, medals, paintings, objects d'art, and a bizarre assemblage of "relics". This includes Cromwell's Bible, button, coffin plate, death mask, and funeral escutcheon. On Tangye's death, the entire collection was donated to the Museum of London, where it can still be seen.^[162]

In 1875, a statue of Cromwell by Matthew Noble was erected in Manchester outside the Manchester Cathedral, a gift to the city by Abel Heywood in memory of her first husband.^[163][164] It was the first large-scale statue to be erected in the open in England and was a realistic likeness, based on the painting by Peter Lely and showing Cromwell in battledress with drawn sword and leather body armour. It was unpopular with local Conservatives and the large Irish immigrant population. Queen Victoria was invited to open the new Manchester Town Hall, and she allegedly consented on the condition that the statue be removed. The statue remained, Victoria declined, and the town hall was opened by the Lord Mayor. During the 1980s, the statue was relocated outside Wythenshawe Hall, which had been occupied by Cromwell's troops.^[165]

During the 1890s, Parliamentary plans turned controversial to erect a statue of Cromwell outside Parliament. Pressure from the Irish Nationalist Party^[166] forced the withdrawal of a motion to seek public funding for the project; the statue was eventually erected but it had to be funded privately by Lord Rosebery.^[167]

Cromwell controversy continued into the 20th century. Winston Churchill was First Lord of the Admiralty before World War I, and he twice suggested naming a British battleship HMS Oliver Cromwell. The suggestion was vetoed by King George V because of his personal feelings and because he felt that it was unwise to give such a name to an expensive warship at a time of Irish political unrest, especially given the anger caused by the statue outside Parliament. Churchill was eventually told by First Sea Lord Admiral Battenberg that the King's decision must be treated as final.^[168] The Cromwell Tank was a British medium weight tank first used in 1944,^[169] and a steam locomotive built by British Railways in 1951 was the BR Standard Class 7 70013 Oliver Cromwell.^[170]

Other public statues of Cromwell are the Statue of Oliver Cromwell, St Ives in Cambridgeshire^[171] and the Statue of Oliver Cromwell, Warrington in Cheshire.^[172] An oval plaque at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge reads:^[141][173]

Near to
this place was buried
on 25 March 1960 the head of
OLIVER CROMWELL
Lord Protector of the Common-
wealth of England, Scotland &
Ireland, Fellow Commoner
of this College 1616-7

Title as Lord Protector and arms[edit]

• His Highness By the Grace of God and Republic, Lord Protector of England, Scotland and Ireland (16 December 1653 – 3 September 1658)

Arms[edit]

Coat of arms of Oliver Cromwell

Notes Source: Klebeband Nr. 2 der Fürstlich Waldeckschen Hofbibliothek Arolsen. Crest A demi lion issuant argent, holding in his paws a broken spear proper Escutcheon Quarterly of six: first, sable, a lion rampant argent; second, sable, three spear-heads argent imbrued proper; third, sable, a chevron between three fleurs-de-lis argent; fourth, gules, three chevrons argent; fifth, argent, a lion rampant sable; sixth, argent, on a chevron sable a mullet of the field.

Ancestry[edit]

Ancestors of Oliver Cromwell

In popular culture[edit]

See also[edit]

1. ^ Dates in this article are according to the Julian calendar in force in England during Cromwell's lifetime; however, years are assumed to start on 1 January rather than 25 March, which was the English New Year. The Gregorian calendar counterparts are: born 5 May 1599; died 13 September 1658 (see Old Style and New Style dates).
   


2. ^ Henry VIII believed that the Welsh should adopt surnames in the English style rather than taking their fathers' names as Morgan ap William and his male ancestors had done. Henry suggested to Sir Richard Williams, who was the first to use a surname in his family, that he adopt the surname of his uncle Thomas Cromwell. For several generations, the Williamses added the surname of Cromwell to their own, styling themselves "Williams alias Cromwell" in legal documents (Noble 1784, pp. 11–13)
   

Citations[edit]

1. ^ Dickens, Charles (1854). A Child's History of England volume 3. Bradbury and Evans. p. 239.
   


2. ^ Morrill, John (2004). "Cromwell, Oliver (1599–1658)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 23 April 2017. (Subscription required (help)).
   


3. ^ "The survival of English nonconformity and the reputation of the English for tolerance is part of his abiding legacy," says David Sharp, (Sharp 2003, p. 68)
   


4. ^ "Oliver Cromwell (1599–1658)".
   




5. ^ Trotsky, Leon. "Two traditions: the seventeenth-century revolution and Chartism". marxists.anu.edu.au. Marxists Internet Archive. Archived from the original on 17 July 2005. Retrieved 10 July 2014.
   


6. ^ Genocidal or near-genocidal: Brendan O'Leary and John McGarry, "Regulating nations and ethnic communities", in Breton Albert (ed.) (1995). Nationalism and RationalityCambridge University Press. p. 248.
   


7. ^ Ó Siochrú, Micheál (2008). God's executioner. Faber und Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-24121-7.
   


8. ^ "Ten greatest Britons chosen". BBC. 20 October 2002. Retrieved 27 November 2008.
   


9. ^ David Plant. "Oliver Cromwell 1599–1658". British-civil-wars.co.uk. Retrieved 27 November 2008.
   


10. ^ Thomas Carlyle, ed. (1887). Oliver Cromwell's letters and speeches. 1. p. 17.CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
    


11. ^ Gaunt, p. 31.
    


12. ^ Speech to the First Protectorate Parliament, 4 September 1654, (Roots 1989, p. 42).
    


13. ^ ^{a b} British Civil Wars, Commonwealth and Proctectorate 1638–1660
    


14. ^ "Cromwell, Oliver (CRML616O)". A Cambridge Alumni Database. University of Cambridge.
    


15. ^ ^{a b} Antonia Fraser, Cromwell: Our Chief of Men (1973), ISBN 0-297-76556-6, p. 24.
    


16. ^ John Morrill, (1990). "The Making of Oliver Cromwell", in Morrill, ed., Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution (Longman), ISBN 0-582-01675-4, p.24.
    


17. ^ "Cromwell's family". The Cromwell Association. Retrieved 6 August 2017.
    


18. ^ Gardiner, Samuel Rawson (1901). Oliver CromwellISBN 1-4179-4961-9, p.4; Gaunt, Peter (1996). Oliver Cromwell (Blackwell), ISBN 0-631-18356-6, p.23.
    


19. ^ ^{a b c} Morrill, p.34.
    


20. ^ Morrill, pp.24–33.
    


21. ^ Gaunt, p.34.
    


22. ^ ^{a b c d e f} "Oliver Cromwell". British Civil Wars Project. Retrieved 6 August 2017.
    


23. ^ Morrill, pp.25–26.
    


24. ^ Cromwell: Our Chief of Menby Antonia Fraser, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London 1973
    


25. ^ Adamson, John (1990). "Oliver Cromwell and the Long Parliament", in Morrill, p. 57.
    


26. ^ Adamson, p. 53.
    


27. ^ David Plant. "1643: Civil War in Lincolnshire". British-civil-wars.co.uk. Retrieved 27 November 2008.
    


28. ^ "Fenland riots". www.elystandard.co.uk. Retrieved 12 January 2019.
    


29. ^ Cromwell: Our Chief of Menby Antonia Fraser, London 1973, ISBN 0297765566, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, pp. 120–129.
    


30. ^ "The Battle of Marston Moor". British Civil Wars. Retrieved 21 June 2015.
    


31. ^ Letter to Sir William Spring, September 1643, quoted in Carlyle, Thomas (ed.) (1904 edition). Oliver Cromwell's letters and speeches, with elucidationsvol I, p.154; also quoted in Young and Holmes (2000). The English Civil War, (Wordsworth), ISBN 1-84022-222-0, p.107.
    


32. ^ "Sermons of Rev Martin Camoux: Oliver Cromwell". Archived from the original on 16 May 2009.
    


33. ^ "A Survey of the Spirituall Antichrist Opening the Secrets of Familisme and Antinomianisme in the Antichristian Doctrine of John Saltmarsh and Will. del, the Present Preachers of the Army Now in England, and of Robert Town".
    


34. ^ Kenyon, John & Ohlmeyer, Jane (eds.) (2000). The Civil Wars: A Military History of England, Scotland, and Ireland 1638–1660 (Oxford University Press), ISBN 0-19-280278-X, p.141
    


35. ^ Woolrych, Austin (1990). Cromwell as a soldierin Morrill, pp.117–118.
    


36. ^ Cromwell: Our Chief of Menby Antonia Fraser, London 1973, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, ISBN 0-297-76556-6, pp. 154–161
    


37. ^ "A lasting place in history". Saffron Walden Reporter. 10 May 2007. Retrieved 6 August 2017.
    


38. ^ Ashley, Maurice (1957). The Greatness of Oliver Cromwell. London: Collier- Macmillan LTD. pp. 187–190.
    


39. ^ Although there is debate over whether Cromwell and Ireton were the authors of the Heads of Proposals or acting on behalf of Saye and Sele: Adamson, John (1987). "The English Nobility and the Projected Settlement of 1647", in Historical Journal30, 3; Kishlansky, Mark (1990). "Saye What?" in Historical Journal 33, 4.
    


40. ^ Woolrych, Austin (1987). Soldiers and Statesmen: the General Council of the Army and its Debates (Clarendon Press), ISBN 0-19-822752-3, ch. 2–5.
    


41. ^ See The Levellers: The Putney DebatesTexts selected and annotated by Philip Baker, Introduction by Geoffrey Robertson QC. London and New York: Verso, 2007.
    


42. ^ "Spartacus: Rowland Laugharne at Spartacus.Schoolnet.co.uk". Archived from the original on 25 October 2008.
    


43. ^ Gardiner (1901), pp.144–47; Gaunt (1997) 94–97.
    


44. ^ Morrill and Baker (2008), p.31.
    


45. ^ Adamson, pp.76–84.
    


46. ^ Jendrysik, p. 79
    


47. ^ Macaulay, p. 68
    


48. ^ Coward 1991, p. 65
    


49. ^ "Death Warrant of King Charles I". UK Parliament. Retrieved 6 August 2017.
    


50. ^ Hart, Ben. "Oliver Cromwell Destroys the "Divine Right of Kings"". Archived from the original on 7 November 2015. Retrieved 6 August 2017.
    


51. ^ Gentles, Ian (2011). Oliver Cromwell. Macmillian Distribution Ltd. p. 82. ISBN 0-333-71356-7.
    


52. ^ "The Regicides". The Brish Civil wars Project. Retrieved 6 August 2017.
    


53. ^ David Plant (14 December 2005). "The Levellers". British-civil-wars.co.uk. Retrieved 14 June 2012.
    


54. ^ Quoted in Lenihan, Padraig (2000). Confederate Catholics at War (Cork University Press), ISBN 1-85918-244-5, p.115.
    


55. ^ Fraser, pp.74–76.
    


56. ^ Fraser, pp.326–328.
    


57. ^ ^{a b} Kenyon & Ohlmeyer, p.98.
    


58. ^ Cromwell, Oliver (1846). Thomas Carlyle, ed. "Oliver Cromwell's letters and speeches, with elucidations". William H. Colyer. p. 128. Retrieved 22 January 2010.
    


59. ^ Fraser, Antonia (1973). Cromwell, Our Chief of Menand Cromwell: the Lord Protector (Phoenix Press), ISBN 0-7538-1331-9 pp.344–46; and Austin Woolrych, Britain In Revolution (Oxford, 2002), p. 470
    


60. ^ ^{a b} Kenyon & Ohlmeyer, p.100.
    


61. ^ Fraser, pp.321–322; Lenihan 2000, p.113.
    


62. ^ Fraser, p.355.
    


63. ^ Kenyon & Ohlmeyer, p.314.
    


64. ^ "Act for the Settlement of Ireland, 12 August 1652, Henry Scobell, ii. 197. See Commonwealth and Protectorate, iv. 82-5". the Constitution Society. Retrieved 14 February 2008.
    


65. ^ Lenihan 2007, pp. 135-136
    


66. ^ Christopher Hill, 1972, God's Englishman: Oliver Cromwell and the English RevolutionPenguin Books: London, p.108: "The brutality of the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland is not one of the pleasanter aspects of our hero's career ..."
    


67. ^ Barry Coward, 1991, Oliver Cromwell, Pearson Education: Rugby, p.74: "Revenge was not Cromwell's only motive for the brutality he condoned at Wexford and Drogheda, but it was the dominant one ..."
    


68. ^ Philip McKeiver, 2007, A New History of Cromwell's Irish Campaign
    


69. ^ Micheal O'Siochru, 2008, God's Executioner, Oliver Cromwell and the Conquest of Irelandp. 83, 90
    


70. ^ O'Callaghan, Sean (2000). To Hell or Barbados. Brandon. p. 86. ISBN 0-86322-287-0.
    


71. ^ Lenihan 2000, p. 1O22; "After Cromwell returned to England in 1650, the conflict degenerated into a grindingly slow counter-insurgency campaign punctuated by some quite protracted sieges...the famine of 1651 onwards was a man-made response to stubborn guerrilla warfare. Collective reprisals against the civilian population included forcing them out of designated 'no man's lands' and the systematic destruction of foodstuffs".
    


72. ^ Carlyle, Thomas (1897). "Oliver Cromwell's Letters and Speeches II: Letters from Ireland, 1649 and 1650". Chapman and Hall Ltd, London. Retrieved 6 August 2017.
    


73. ^ Woolrych, Austin (1990). Cromwell as soldierin Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution (Longman), ISBN 0-582-01675-4, p. 112: "viewed in the context of the German wars that had just ended after thirty years of fighting, the massacres at Drogheda and Wexford shrink to typical casualties of seventeenth-century warfare".
    


74. ^ The Thirty Years War (1618–48) 7 500 000: "R.J. Rummel: 11.5M total deaths in the war (half democides)"
    


75. ^ Gardiner (1886), Vol. II, p. 345
    


76. ^ J.C. Davis, Oliver Cromwellpp. 108–10.
    


77. ^ Abbott, Writings and Speechesvol II, p.124.
    


78. ^ Woolrych, Austin (1990). Cromwell as soldierp. 111; Gaunt, p. 117.
    


79. ^ Lenihan 2000, p.168.
    


80. ^ Gaunt, p.116.
    


81. ^ Stevenson, Cromwell, Scotland and Irelandin Morrill, p.151.
    


82. ^ "Eugene Coyle. Review of Cromwell—An Honourable Enemy. History Ireland". Archived from the original on 21 February 2001.
    


83. ^ Micheal O'Siochru, 2008, God's Executioner, Oliver Cromwell and the Conquest of Irelandp. 83-93
    


84. ^ Schama, Simon, "A History of Britain," 2000.
    


85. ^ Citations for genocide, near genocide and ethnic cleansing:
    
    • Albert Breton (Editor, 1995). Nationalism and Rationality. Cambridge University Press 1995. Page 248. "Oliver Cromwell offered Irish Catholics a choice between genocide and forced mass population transfer"
    
    
    • Ukrainian Quarterly. Ukrainian Society of America 1944. "Therefore, we are entitled to accuse the England of Oliver Cromwell of the genocide of the Irish civilian population.."
    
    
    • David Norbrook (2000).Writing the English Republic: Poetry, Rhetoric and Politics, 1627–1660. Cambridge University Press. 2000. In interpreting Andrew Marvell's contemporarily expressed views on Cromwell Norbrook says; "He (Cromwell) laid the foundation for a ruthless programme of resettling the Irish Catholics which amounted to large scale ethnic cleansing."
    
    
    • Alan Axelrod (2002). Profiles in LeadershipPrentice-Hall. 2002. Page 122. "As a leader Cromwell was entirely unyielding. He was willing to act on his beliefs, even if this meant killing the King and perpetrating, against the Irish, something very nearly approaching genocide"
    
    
    • Morrill, John (December 2003). "Rewriting Cromwell—A Case of Deafening Silences". Canadian Journal of History. Universität von Toronto Press. 38 (3). Retrieved 23 June 2015. Of course, this has never been the Irish view of Cromwell. Most Irish remember him as the man responsible for the mass slaughter of civilians at Drogheda and Wexford and as the agent of the greatest episode of ethnic cleansing ever attempted in Western Europe as, within a decade, the percentage of land possessed by Catholics born in Ireland dropped from sixty to twenty. In a decade, the ownership of two-fifths of the land mass was transferred from several thousand Irish Catholic landowners to British Protestants. The gap between Irish and the English views of the seventeenth-century conquest remains unbridgeable and is governed by G.K. Chesterton's mirthless epigram of 1917, that 'it was a tragic necessity that the Irish should remember it; but it was far more tragic that the English forgot it'.
    
    
    • Lutz, James M.; Lutz, Brenda J. (2004). Global Terrorism. London: Routledge. p. 193. The draconian laws applied by Oliver Cromwell in Ireland were an early version of ethnic cleansing. The Catholic Irish were to be expelled to the northwestern areas of the island. Relocation rather than extermination was the goal.
    
    
    • Mark Levene (2005). Genocide in the Age of the Nation State: Volume 2. ISBN 978-1-84511-057-4 Page 55, 56 & 57. A sample quote describes the Cromwellian campaign and settlement as "a conscious attempt to reduce a distinct ethnic population".
    
    
    • Mark Levene (2005). Genocide in the Age of the Nation-StateI.B.Tauris: London:

    [The Act of Settlement of Ireland]and the parliamentary legislation which succeeded it the following year, is the nearest thing on paper in the English, and more broadly British, domestic record, to a programme of state-sanctioned and systematic ethnic cleansing of another people. The fact that it did not include 'total' genocide in its remit, or that it failed to put into practice the vast majority of its proposed expulsions, ultimately, however, says less about the lethal determination of its makers and more about the political, structural and financial weakness of the early modern English state.

    
    


86. ^ Faolain, Turlough (1983). Blood On The Harp. p. 191. Retrieved 15 October 2018.
    


87. ^ O' Connell, Daniel (1828). A collection of speeches spoken by ... on subjects connected with the catholic question. p. 317. Retrieved 15 October 2018.
    


88. ^ Patrick, Brantlinger. Dark Vanishings: Discourse on the Extinction of Primitive Races, 1800-1930. Retrieved 15 October 2018.
    


89. ^ Dregne, Lukas. "Just Warfare, or Genocide?: Oliver Cromwell and the Siege of Drogheda". University of Montana. Retrieved 15 October 2018.
    


90. ^ Winston S. Churchill, 1957, A History of the English Speaking Peoples: The Age of RevolutionDodd, Mead and Company: New York (p. 9): "We have seen the many ties which at one time or another have joined the inhabitants of the Western islands, and even in Ireland itself offered a tolerable way of life to Protestants and Catholics alike. Upon all of these Cromwell's record was a lasting bane. By an uncompleted process of terror, by an iniquitous land settlement, by the virtual proscription of the Catholic religion, by the bloody deeds already described, he cut new gulfs between the nations and the creeds. "Hell or Connaught" were the terms he thrust upon the native inhabitants, and they for their part, across three hundred years, have used as their keenest expression of hatred "The Curse of Cromwell on you". The consequences of Cromwell's rule in Ireland have distressed and at times distract ed English politics down even to the present day. To heal them baffled the skill and loyalties of successive generations. They became for a time a potent obstacle to the harmony of the English-speaking people throughout the world. Upon all of us there still lies 'the curse of Cromwell'.
    


91. ^ Abbott, W.C. (1929). Writings and Speeches of Oliver CromwellHarvard University Press, pp.196–205.
    


92. ^ ^{a b} Abbott, p.202.
    


93. ^ Abbott, p.205.
    


94. ^ Cunningham, John. "Conquest and Land in Ireland". Royal Historical Society, Boydell Press. Retrieved 16 December 2012.
    


95. ^ Lenihan 2000, p.115.
    


96. ^ Gardiner (1901), p.184.
    


97. ^ Stevenson, David (1990). Cromwell, Scotland and Irelandin Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution (Longman), ISBN 0-582-01675-4, p.155.
    


98. ^ ^{a b} Kenyon & Ohlmeyer, p.66.
    


99. ^ Cromwell: Our Chief of Menby Antonia Fraser, London 1973, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, ISBN 0-297-76556-6, pp. 385–389.
    


100. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition article "GREAT REBELLION" Sections "4. Battle of Edgehill" and "59. The Crowning Mercy
     


101. ^ Williams, Mark; Forrest, Stephen Paul (2010). Constructing the Past: Writing Irish History, 1600-1800. Boydell & Brewer. p. 160. ISBN 9781843835738.
     


102. ^ Kenyon & Ohlmeyer, p.306.
     


103. ^ Parker, Geoffrey (2003). Empire, War and Faith in Early Modern Europep.281.
     


104. ^ Kenyon & Ohlmeyer, p.320.
     


105. ^ Worden, Blair (1977). The Rump Parliament (Cambridge University Press), ISBN 0-521-29213-1, ch.16–17.
     


106. ^ Abbott, p.643
     


107. ^ Abbott, p.642-643.
     


108. ^ "Charles Worsley". British Civil Wars Project. Retrieved 6 August 2017.
     



109. ^ Woolrych, Austin (1982). Commonwealth to Protectorate (Clarendon Press), ISBN 0-19-822659-4, ch.5–10.
     


110. ^ Gaunt, p.155.
     


111. ^ Gaunt, p.156.
     


112. ^ A History of Britain – The Stuarts. Ladybird. 1991. ISBN 0-7214-3370-7.
     


113. ^ Hirst, Derek (1990). "The Lord Protector, 1653–8", in Morrill, p.172.
     


114. ^ Quoted in Hirst, p.127.
     


115. ^ "Cromwell, At the Opening of Parliament Under the Protectorate (1654)". Strecorsoc.org. Retrieved 27 November 2008.
     


116. ^ "First Anglo-Dutch War". British Civil Wars project. Retrieved 6 August 2017.
     


117. ^ Fischer, David Hackett (1991) [1989]. "The South of England to Virginia: Distressed Cavaliers and Indentured Servants, 1642–75". Albion's Seed: Four British Folkways in America. Oxford: Oxford University Press. S. 219–220. ISBN 9780195069051.
     


118. ^ Roots 1989, pp.41–56.
     


119. ^ Aylmer, G.E., Rebellion or Revolution? England 1640-1660Oxford and New York, 1990 Oxford University Paperback, p.169.
     


120. ^ Hirst, p.173.
     


121. ^ Durston, Christopher (1998). The Fall of Cromwell's Major-Generals in English Historical Review 1998 113(450): pp.18–37, ISSN 0013-8266 .
     


122. ^ Hirst, p.137.
     


123. ^ Coulton, Barbara. "Cromwell and the 'readmission' of the Jews to England, 1656" (PDF). The Cromwell Association. Lancaster University. Retrieved 23 April 2017.
     


124. ^ Carlyle, Thomas, Oliver Cromwell's Letters and Speeches with ElucidationsLondon, Chapman and Hall Ltd, 1897, pp.109-113 and 114-115
     


125. ^ Morrill, John (editor), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution1990, pp.137-138, 190, and 211-213.
     


126. ^ Manganiello, Stephen, The Concise Encyclopedia of the Revolutions and Wars of England, Scotland and Ireland, 1639-1660Scarecrow Press, 2004, 613 p., ISBN 9780810851009, p. 539.
     


127. ^ Roots 1989, p.128.
     


128. ^ Worden, Blair (1985). "Oliver Cromwell and the sin of Achan", in Beales, D. and Best, G. (eds.) History, Society and the ChurchesISBN 0-521-02189-8, pp.141–145.
     


129. ^ Masson, p. 354
     


130. ^ McMains 2015, p. 75.
     


131. ^ Gaunt, p.204.
     



132. ^ ^{a b} "Cromwell's head". Cambridge County Council. 2010. Archived from the original on 11 March 2010. Retrieved 5 July 2016.
     


133. ^ "MONCK, George (1608-70), of Potheridge, Merton, Devon. - History of Parliament Online". Retrieved 30 July 2016.
     


134. ^ Staff. "Roundhead on the Pike", Time magazine, 6 May 1957
     


135. ^ Terri Schlichenmeyer (21 August 2007). "Missing body parts of famous people". CNN. Retrieved 27 November 2008.
     


136. ^ Gaunt, p.4.
     


137. ^ ^{a b} Larson, Frances (August 2014). "Severance Package". Readings. Harper's Magazine. Harper's Magazine Foundation. 329 (1971): 22–5.
     


138. ^ Pepys, Samuel. The Diary of Samuel Pepys: Diary entries from October 1664. Thursday 13 October 1664. Retrieved 4 August 2017. When I told him of what I found writ in a French book of one Monsieur Sorbiere, that gives an account of his observations herein England; among other things he says, that it is reported that Cromwell did, in his life-time, transpose many of the bodies of the Kings of England from one grave to another, and that by that means it is not known certainly whether the head that is now set up upon a post be that of Cromwell, or of one of the Kings.
     


139. ^ Gaunt, Peter (1996). Oliver Cromwell. Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers Inc. p. 4.
     


140. ^ "Westminster Abbey reveals Cromwell's original grave". Westminster Abbey. Retrieved 29 July 2011.
     


141. ^ "Westminster Abbey site: Oliver Cromwell".
     


142. ^ Morrill, John (1990). "Cromwell and his contemporaries", in Morrill, pp.263–4.
     


143. ^ Morrill, pp.271–2.
     


144. ^ "RPO - John Milton : Sonnet XVI: To the Lord General Cromwell". Tspace.library.utoronto.ca. Retrieved 28 October 2015.
     


145. ^ Morrill, pp. 279–81.
     


146. ^ ^{a b} Gaunt, p.9.
     


147. ^ Worden, Blair (2001). Roundhead Reputations: The English Civil Wars and the Passions of Posterity (Penguin), ISBN 0-14-100694-3, pp. 53–59
     


148. ^ "The Life and Eccentricities of the late Dr. Monsey, F.R.S, physician to the Royal Hospital at Chelsea", printed by J.D. Dewick, Aldergate street, 1804, p.108
     


149. ^ Carlyle, Thomas (December 1843). Oliver Cromwell's Letters and Speeches (PDF).
     


150. ^ Gardiner (1901), p.315.
     


151. ^ Worden, pp.256–260.
     


152. ^ Gardiner (1901), p.318.
     


153. ^ Morrill, John (1990). "Textualising and Contextualising Cromwell". Historical Journal. 33 (3): 629–39.
     


154. ^ Woolrych, Austin (1990). "The Cromwellian Protectorate: a Military Dictatorship?" in History 1990 75(244): 207–31, ISSN 0018-2648.
     


155. ^ Morrill (2004). "Cromwell, Oliver (1599–1658)", in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, (Oxford University Press) Oxforddnb.com; Worden, Blair (1985). "Oliver Cromwell and the sin of Achan". In Beales, D. and Best, G., History, Society and the Churches; Davis, J.C. (1990). "Cromwell's religion", in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution (Longman).
     


156. ^ Hahn, Harold H. Ships of the American Revolution and their Models. Pp. 74–101. Naval Institute Press, Annapolis Maryland, 2000.
     


157. ^ "Death of Sir Richard Tangye" (PDF). New York Times. 15 October 1906. Retrieved 5 June 2010.
     


158. ^ "War websites". Channel4. Retrieved 5 June 2010.
     


159. ^ "Greater Manchester Photographic Memories". Francis Frith. Archived from the original on 11 January 2012. Retrieved 29 July 2011.
     


160. ^ "Oliver Cromwell". Public Monument and Sculpture Association. Archived from the original on 9 February 2012. Retrieved 12 January 2012.
     


161. ^ Moss, John. "Manchester during the Reformation, Oliver Cromwell & the English Civil Wars". Manchester2002-uk.com. Archived from the original on 23 May 2011. Retrieved 29 July 2011.
     


162. ^ "STATUE OF OLIVER CROMWELL". Hansard.millbanksystems.com. 25 April 1899. Retrieved 29 July 2011.
     


163. ^ "The Cromwell Statue at Westminster – Icons of England". Icons.org.uk. Archived from the original on 14 March 2009. Retrieved 29 July 2011.
     


164. ^ Kenneth Rose, King George VNew York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1984, p. 160-61. The King also vetoed the name HMS "Pitt", as sailors might give the ship a nickname based on its rhyming with a "vulgar and ill-conditioned word".
     


165. ^ "Cromwell Mark I". On war. Retrieved 6 August 2017.
     


166. ^ National Railway Museum (May 2004). "Oliver Cromwell on the move again!" (Pressemitteilung). Archived from the original on 18 January 2009. Retrieved 13 April 2008.
     


167. ^ Historic England, "Statue of Oliver Cromwell, Market Hill (1161588)", National Heritage List for Englandretrieved 5 February 2016
     


168. ^ Historic England, "Statue of Oliver Cromwell, Bridge Street (1139417)", National Heritage List for Englandretrieved 18 February 2016
     


169. ^ Comerford, Patrick (6 July 2009). "Is Cromwell's head buried in Sidney Sussex Chapel?". Patrick Comerford: my thoughts on Anglicanism, theology, spirituality, history, architecture, travel, poetry and beach walks. Retrieved 16 July 2014.
     

References[edit]

• Adamson, John (1990), "Oliver Cromwell and the Long Parliament", in Morrill, John, Oliver Cromwell and the English RevolutionLongman, ISBN 0-582-01675-4


• Adamson, John (1987), "The English Nobility and the Projected Settlement of 1647", Historical Journal30 (3)


• BBC staff (3 October 2014), "The Execution of Charles I", BBC Radio 4—This Sceptred Isle—The Execution of Charles I.BBC Radio 4retrieved 4 November 2007


• Carlyle, Thomas, ed. (1845), Oliver Cromwell's letters and speeches, with elucidations (1904 ed.) — "All five volumes (1872)" (PDF). (40.2 MB);


• Churchill, Winston (1956), A History of English Speaking Peoples:Dodd, Mead & Company, p. 314


• Coward, Barry (1991), Oliver CromwellPearson Education, ISBN 978-0582553859


• Coward, Barry (2003), The Stuart Age: England, 1603–1714Longman, ISBN 0-582-77251-6


• Durston, Christopher (1998), "The Fall of Cromwell's Major-Generals (CXIII (450))", English Historical Reviewpp. 18–37, doi:10.1093/ehr/CXIII.450.18, ISSN 0013-8266(subscription required)


• Gardiner, Samuel Rawson (1886), History of the Great Civil War, 1642–1649Longmans, Green, and Company


• Gardiner, Samuel Rawson (1901), Oliver CromwellISBN 1-4179-4961-9


• Gaunt, Peter (1996), Oliver CromwellBlackwell, ISBN 0-631-18356-6


• Hirst, Derek (1990), "The Lord Protector, 1653-8", in Morrill, John, Oliver Cromwell and the English RevolutionLongman, ISBN 0-582-01675-4


• Jendrysik, mark (2007), Explaining the English Revolution: Hobbes and His ContemporariesLexington, ISBN 978-0739121818


• Kenyon, John; Ohlmeyer, Jane, eds. (2000), The Civil Wars: A Military History of England, Scotland, and Ireland 1638–1660Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-280278-X


• Kishlansky, Mark (1990), "Saye What?", Historical Journal33 (4)


• Lenihan, Padraig (2000), Confederate Catholics at WarCork University Press, ISBN 1-85918-244-5


• Lenihan, Padraig (2007), Consolidating Conquest: Ireland 1603-1727 (Longman History of Ireland)Routledge, ISBN 978-0582772175


• Macaulay, James (1891), Cromwell AnecdotesLondon: Hodder


• McMains, H.F. (2015), The Death of Oliver CromwellUniversity Press of Kentucky, p. 75, ISBN 978-0-8131-5910-2


• Masson, David (1877), The Life of John Milton: 1654-16605 (7 volumes ed.), pp. , 354


• Morrill, John (1990), "Cromwell and his contemporaries", in Morrill, John, Oliver Cromwell and the English RevolutionLongman, ISBN 0-582-01675-4


• Morrill, John (1990), "The Making of Oliver Cromwell", in Morrill, John, Oliver Cromwell and the English RevolutionLongman, ISBN 0-582-01675-4


• Morrill, John; Baker, Phillip (2008), "Oliver Cromwell, the Regicide and the Sons of Zeruiah", in Smith, David Lee, Cromwell and the Interregnum: The Essential ReadingsJohn Wiley & Sons, ISBN 1405143142


• Noble, Mark (1784), Memoirs of the Protectorate-house of Cromwell: Deduced from an Early Period, and Continued Down to the Present Time,...2Printed by Pearson and Rollason


• O'Siochru, Micheal (2008), God's Executioner, Oliver Cromwell and the Conquest of IrelandFaber and Faber, ISBN 978-0-571-24121-7


• Roots, Ivan (1989), Speeches of Oliver CromwellEveryman classics, ISBN 0-460-01254-1


• Rutt, John Towill, ed. (1828), "Cromwell's death and funeral order", Diary of Thomas Burton esq, April 1657 – February 1658Institute of Historical Research, 2pp. 516–530retrieved 8 November 2011


• Sharp, David (2003), Oliver CromwellHeinemann, p. 60, ISBN 978-0-435-32756-9


• Woolrych, Austin (1982), Commonwealth to ProtectorateClarendon Press, ISBN 0-19-822659-4


• Woolrych, Austin (1990), "Cromwell as a soldier", in Morrill, John, Oliver Cromwell and the English RevolutionLongman, ISBN 0-582-01675-4


• Woolrych, Austin (1987), Soldiers and Statesmen: the General Council of the Army and its DebatesClarendon Press, ISBN 0-19-822752-3


• Worden, Blair (1985), "Oliver Cromwell and the sin of Achan", in Beales, D.; Best, G., History, Society and the ChurchesISBN 0-521-02189-8


• Worden, Blair (1977), The Rump ParliamentCambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-29213-1


• Worden, Blair (2000), "Thomas Carlyle and Oliver Cromwell", Proceedings of the British Academy105: 131–170, ISSN 0068-1202


• Young, Peter; Holmes, Richard (2000), The English Civil WarWordsworth, ISBN 1-84022-222-0

Further reading[edit]

Biographical[edit]

• Adamson, John (1990). "Oliver Cromwell and the Long Parliament", in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution Longman, ISBN 0-582-01675-4


• Ashley, Maurice (1958). The Greatness of Oliver Cromwell Macmillan. online


• Ashley, Maurice (1969) Cromwell excerpts from primary and secondary sources online


• Bennett, Martyn. Oliver Cromwell (2006), ISBN 0-415-31922-6


• Boyer, Richard E., ed. Oliver Cromwell and the Puritan revolt; failure of a man or a faith? (1966) excerpts from primary and secondary sources. online


• Clifford, Alan (1999). Oliver Cromwell: the lessons and legacy of the Protectorate Charenton Reformed Publishing, ISBN 0-9526716-2-X. Religious study.


• Davis, J. C. (2001). Oliver Cromwell Hodder Arnold, ISBN 0-340-73118-4


• Firth, C.H. (1900). Oliver Cromwell and the Rule of the Puritans online edition ISBN 1-4021-4474-1; classic older biography


• Fraser, Antonia (1973). Cromwell, Our Chief of Men, and Cromwell: the Lord Protector Phoenix Press, ISBN 0-7538-1331-9. Popular narrative. online


• Gardiner, Samuel Rawson (1901). Oliver CromwellISBN 1-4179-4961-9. Classic older biography. online


• Gaunt, Peter (1996). Oliver Cromwell Blackwell, ISBN 0-631-18356-6. Short biography.


• Hill, Christopher (1970). God's Englishman: Oliver Cromwell And The English Revolution Dial Press, ISBN 0-297-00043-8. online


• Hirst, Derek (1990). "The Lord Protector, 1653-8", in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution Longman, ISBN 0-582-01675-4


• Kerlau, Yann (1989) "Cromwell", Perrin/France


• Mason, James and Angela Leonard (1998). Oliver Cromwell Longman, ISBN 0-582-29734-6


• McKeiver, Philip (2007). "A New History of Cromwell's Irish Campaign", Advance Press, Manchester, ISBN 978-0-9554663-0-4


• Morrill, John (May 2008) [2004]. "Cromwell, Oliver (1599–1658)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/6765.(Subscription or UK public library membership required.)


• Morrill, John (1990). "The Making of Oliver Cromwell", in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution Longman, ISBN 0-582-01675-4.


• Paul, Robert (1958). The Lord Protector: Religion And Politics In The Life Of Oliver Cromwell


• Smith, David (ed.) (2003). Oliver Cromwell and the Interregnum Blackwell, ISBN 0-631-22725-3


• Wedgwood, C.V. (1939). Oliver Cromwell Duckworth, ISBN 0-7156-0656-5


• Worden, Blair (1985). "Oliver Cromwell and the sin of Achan", in Beales, D. and Best, G. (eds.) History, Society and the ChurchesISBN 0-521-02189-8

Military studies[edit]

• Durston, Christopher (2000). "'Settling the Hearts and Quieting the Minds of All Good People': the Major-generals and the Puritan Minorities of Interregnum England", in History 2000 85(278): pp. 247–267, ISSN 0018-2648 . Full text online at Ebsco.


• Durston, Christopher (1998). "The Fall of Cromwell's Major-Generals", in English Historical Review 1998 113(450): pp. 18–37, ISSN 0013-8266


• Firth, C.H. (1921). Cromwell's Army Greenhill Books, ISBN 1-85367-120-7 online


• Gillingham, J. (1976). Portrait of a Soldier: Cromwell Weidenfeld & Nicolson, ISBN 0-297-77148-5


• Kenyon, John & Ohlmeyer, Jane (eds.) (2000). The Civil Wars: A Military History of England, Scotland, and Ireland 1638–1660 Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-280278-X


• Kitson, Frank (2004). Old Ironsides: The Military Biography of Oliver Cromwell Weidenfeld Military, ISBN 0-297-84688-4


• Marshall, Alan (2004). Oliver Cromwell: Soldier: The Military Life of a Revolutionary at War Brassey's, ISBN 1-85753-343-7


• McKeiver, Philip (2007). "A New History of Cromwell's Irish Campaign", Advance Press, Manchester, ISBN 978-0-9554663-0-4


• Woolrych, Austin (1990). "The Cromwellian Protectorate: a Military Dictatorship?" in History 1990 75(244): 207–231, doi:10.1111/j.1468-229X.1990.tb01515.x. Full text online at Wiley Online Library.


• Woolrych, Austin (1990). "Cromwell as a soldier", in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution Longman, ISBN 0-582-01675-4


• Young, Peter and Holmes, Richard (2000). The English Civil War, Wordsworth, ISBN 1-84022-222-0

Surveys of era[edit]

• Coward, Barry (2002). The Cromwellian Protectorate Manchester University Press, ISBN 0-7190-4317-4


• Coward, Barry and Peter Gaunt. (2017). The Stuart Age: England, 1603–1714, 5th edition, Longman, ISBN 113894954X. Survey of political history of the era.


• Davies, Godfrey (1959). The Early Stuarts, 1603–1660 Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-821704-8. Political, religious, and diplomatic overview of the era.


• Korr, Charles P. (1975). Cromwell and the New Model Foreign Policy: England's Policy toward France, 1649–1658 University of California Press, ISBN 0-520-02281-5


• Macinnes, Allan (2005). The British Revolution, 1629–1660 Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 0-333-59750-8


• Morrill, John (1990). "Cromwell and his contemporaries". In Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution Longman, ISBN 0-582-01675-4


• Trevor-Roper, Hugh (1967). Oliver Cromwell and his Parliamentsin his Religion, the Reformation and Social Change Macmillan.


• Venning, Timothy (1995). Cromwellian Foreign Policy Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 0-333-63388-1


• Woolrych, Austin (1982). Commonwealth to Protectorate Clarendon Press, ISBN 0-19-822659-4


• Woolrych, Austin (2002). Britain in Revolution 1625–1660 Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-927268-6

Primary sources[edit]

• Abbott, W.C. (ed.) (1937–1947). Writings and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell, 4 vols. The standard academic reference for Cromwell's own words. Questia.com.


• Carlyle, Thomas (ed.) (1904 edition), Oliver Cromwell's letters and speeches, with elucidations. "Gasl.org" (PDF). (40.2 MB);


• Haykin, Michael A. G. (ed.) (1999). To Honour God: The Spirituality of Oliver Cromwell Joshua Press, ISBN 1-894400-03-8. Excerpts from Cromwell's religious writings.


• Morrill, John, et al. (Hrsg.). Writings and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell: A New Critical Edition, 5 vols. (projected). A new edition of Cromwell's writings, currently in progress. ("A New Critical Edition of the Writings and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell". Archived from the original on 14 April 2014. Retrieved 13 April 2014.)


• Roots, Ivan (1989). Speeches of Oliver Cromwell. Everyman classics. ISBN 0-460-01254-1.

Historiography[edit]

• Davis, J. C. Oliver Cromwell (2001). 243 pp; a biographical study that covers sources and historiography


• Gaunt, Peter. "The Reputation of Oliver Cromwell in the 19th century", Parliamentary HistoryOct 2009, Vol. 28 Issue 3, pp 425–428


• Hardacre, Paul H. "Writings on Oliver Cromwell since 1929", in Elizabeth Chapin Furber, ed. Changing views on British history: essays on historical writing since 1939 (Harvard University Press, 1966), pp 141–59


• Lunger Knoppers, Laura. Constructing Cromwell: Ceremony, Portrait and Print, 1645–1661 (2000), shows how people compared Cromwell to King Ahab, King David, Elijah, Gideon and Moses, as well as Brutus and Julius Caesar.


• Mills, Jane, ed. Cromwell's Legacy (Manchester University Press, 2012) online review by Timothy Cooke


• Morrill, John. "Rewriting Cromwell: A Case of Deafening Silences". Canadian Journal of History 2003 38(3): 553–578. ISSN 0008-4107 Fulltext: Ebsco


• Morrill, John (1990). "Textualizing and Contextualizing Cromwell", in Historical Journal 1990 33(3): pp. 629–639. ISSN 0018-246X. Full text online at JSTOR. Examines the Carlyle and Abbott editions.


• Worden, Blair. "Thomas Carlyle and Oliver Cromwell", in Proceedings of the British Academy (2000) 105: pp. 131–170. ISSN 0068-1202.


• Worden, Blair. Roundhead Reputations: the English Civil Wars and the passions of posterity (2001), 387 pp.; ISBN 0-14-100694-3.

External links[edit]